See: Cohen, J., “Research shutdown roils Los Angeles VA.” Science 284 (1999): 18-21.
638.以下是奥斯特霍尔姆团队发现的一些神秘传染病死亡案例,详见1998年11月13日明尼苏达州卫生厅提交给美国疾病预防控制中心并提供给作者的“新发传染病计划非竞争性持续资助申请”。
70号病例:11月10日,4岁儿童出现病毒性胃肠炎症状,11月21日返回,出现嗜睡、呕吐、脱水、喉咙痛和头痛,被送回家吃抗生素。母亲第二天早上发现她没有反应,到达急诊室时死亡。因吸入胃内容物导致气道阻塞而死亡。
73号病例:37岁男性,去年有免疫抑制的证据,但原因不明。死于严重感染,原因不明。
88号病例:9岁女性,从营地返回后一天在家中被发现死亡。死亡前一天抱怨疲劳,但没有其他症状。尸检发现脑水肿,疑似脑膜炎,但所有培养及病毒研究均为阴性。心脏病理学家认为可能的死因是病毒性心肌炎。
18号病例:28岁女性,商店里晕倒。心脏骤停,无法复苏,在急诊室死亡。死亡前几周去墨西哥旅行,后出现胃肠道症状。经尸检,死于急性淋巴细胞性心肌炎。
50号案例:30岁女性,被发现死亡。死亡前一天出现呼吸困难、恶心和呕吐。尸检认为死于葡萄球菌肺炎和中毒性休克综合征。
报告中详述的89起此类案例中,有5起发生在1995年、1996年或1997年。
639.Minnesota Department of Health, “Distribution of insurance coverage in Minnesota.”Issue Brief 96-07 (1997) (www.health.state.mm).
640.“Minnesota's job market: Land of 1,000 opportunities.” The Economist (May 29,1999): 24-25.
641.作者于1999年1月在明尼阿波利斯和圣保罗进行了这个和其他明尼苏达州的访问。
642.Osterholm, M., Speech before the Infectious Disease Society of America, San Francisco, September 13, 1997.
643.1999年,美国疾病预防控制中心将以下食物微生物列为过去十年在美国食品供应中新发现的微生物:
大肠弯曲杆菌
空肠弯曲杆菌
胎儿弯曲杆菌
隐孢子虫
卡叶环孢菌
大肠杆菌0157∶H7
单核细胞增生李斯特菌
诺瓦克样病毒
黑穗病
肠炎沙门氏菌
DT104型鼠伤寒沙门菌
非01号霍乱弧菌
创伤弧菌
副溶血性弧菌
小肠结肠炎耶尔森菌
See: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Safer and healthier foods.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48 (1999): 905-913.
644.以下是他们的一些发现:
耐药菌株的百分比
数据来源:1997年9月13日奥斯特霍尔姆的演讲。
耐药大肠杆菌0157∶H7几乎仍然不存在(1997年的菌株中有3%被认定含有四环素),但这并没有临床意义,因为抗生素治疗是不明智的,因为细菌应激会导致微生物释放毒素,从而加剧疾病,增加病人的死亡。
645.文图拉非常坦率,或者说不那么圆滑,他的评论(包括:“有组织的宗教是一种假象,对于那些人多力量大的弱智者来说,是一种拐杖”)、公开支持同性恋者参军、支持卖**和所有非法毒品(包括海洛因)合法化、憎恶“胖子”等招致了他所在的改革党的愤怒,但也得到了许多美国人的钦佩。
646.
1990—1997年明尼苏达州人口结构的变化
来源:明尼苏达州人口中心,1997年。
647.Liska, D. W., Brennan, N. J., and Brueu, B. K., State-Level Databook on Health Care Access and Financing. Third edition. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1998。在美国,只有威斯康星州的非裔美国人和白人婴儿死亡率的差距比它的邻州明尼苏达州更大。
648.根据明尼苏达州卫生厅的数据,差异如下:
1989—1993年按年龄调整的过早死亡率
单位:/10万人
来源:Healthy Minnesotans: Public Health Improvement Goals 2004. Minneapolis: Minnesota Department of Health, 1998。
649.Heithoff, K. B., Berne, E. Q., Christenson, R., et al., Minnesota Policy Blueprint:Health. St. Paul: Center of the American Experiment, 1998.
650.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “CDC data provides most complete estimate to date on food-borne disease in the United States.” Press Release, Department of Health and Human Services, September 16, 1999 (www.hhs.gov).
651.“Government and private sectors join forces for food safety.” Prevention Report 12(issue 4) (1998): 1-5.
652.美国农业部向《纽约时报》提供了以下数据:
See: Gerth, J. and Weiner, T., “Imports swamp U.S. food-safety efforts.” New York Times(September 29, 1997): Al.
653.Details on Cyclospora come from multiple soures, including Layton, M., Speech to the Infectious Diseases Society of America, San Francisco, September 15, 1997; and Sterling, C.R. and Ortega, Y. R., “Cyclospora: An enigma worth unraveling.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 5(1999): 48-53.
654.1997年,奥斯特霍尔姆的研究小组报告了一起在儿童中暴发的隐孢子虫病,那是在7月的温暖日子里,这些孩子去明尼苏达动物园,在一个刚装修完的喷泉里或在其周围玩耍。结果后来发现,喷泉里含有被污染的水。可污染源从未得到证实。
655.Ford, T. E. and Colwell, R. R., A Global Decline in Microbiological Safety of Water: A Call for Action. Washington, D.C.: American Academy of Microbiology, 1996.
656.Ibid.
657.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks—U.S., 1995-96.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 47 (No, SS-5) (December 11, 1998): 1-34.
658.See also Meinhardt, P. L., Casemore, D. P., and Miller, K. B., “Epidemiological aspects of human cryptosporidiosis and the role of waterborne transmission.” Epidemiologic Reviews 18 (1996): 118-136.
659.Cole, W., “Do water filters work?” Time magazine (June 10, 1996): 70.
660.Natural Resources Defense Council, Think Before You Drink. Washington, D.C.:Natural Resources Defense Council, 1993.
661.Abelson, P. H., “Chlorine and organochlorine compounds.” Science 265 (1994):1155; Amato, I., “The crusade to ban chlorine.” Garbage (Summer 1994): 30-39; Cantor, K. P.,Lynch, C. F., Hildesheim M. E., et al., “Drinking water source and chlorination byproducts in Iowa. III. Risk of brain cancer.” American Journal of Epidemiology 150 (1999): 552-560; Cantor,K. P., “Water chlorination, mutagenicity, and cancer epidemiology.” American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 1121-1123; etc..
662.See Garrett, L., 1994, op. cit; and Levy, S. B., The Antibiotic Paradox: How Miracle Drugs are Destroying the Miracle. New York: Plenum, 1992.
663.Cheevers, J., “Drug-resistant bacteria pose an increasing threat.” Los Angeles Times (March 25, 1999): A1; Leslie, J., “Unsanitary behavior.” Mother Jones (July 1997): 28-30; Woodward, T. E.,“Will antibiotics become obsolete?” American Journal of Medicine 65 (1978): 397-398.
664.Amábile, C. F。, Cardenas-Garcia, M., Ludgar, M., “Antibiotic resistance.” American Scientist (July 1995); Craig, L. F. and Hughes, J. M., “Trends in antimicrobial drug prescribing among office-based physicians in the United States.” Journal of the American Medical Association 273(1995): 214-219; Westh, H., “Influence of erythromycin consumption on erythromycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus in Denmark.” Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics (APUA) Newsletter(Spring 1995) (Boston); and Wise, R., “Global paradox.” Lancet 348 (1996): 282.
665.Report of Joint Committee on the Use of Antibiotics in Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine (Swann Committee). London: Her Majesty' s Stationery Office, September 1969.
666.例如,20世纪90年代家畜(禽)和人类的抗生素使用率如下:
万古霉素是当所有其他药物都不能治愈人类肠球菌、链球菌或葡萄球菌感染时使用的最后一种药物。阿伏帕星(阿伏霉素)是它的临床同类药,用作家畜生长促进剂。阿伏帕星的耐药性与万古霉素的耐药性相同。参见Grady, D., “A move to limit antibiotic use in animal feed.” New York Times (March 18, 1999): A1; Institute of Medicine, Antimicrobial Resistance: Issues and Options. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Science, 1998; van den Bogaard, A. E. and Stobberingh, E. E., “Time to ban all antibiotics as animal growth-promoting agents?” Lancet 348 (1996): 619; and Witte, W., 1998, op. cit。
667.Even wild animals never treated directly with antibiotic-laced feeds had acquired drug-resistant bacteria by 1999. See Gilliver, M. A., Bennett, M., Begon, M., et al.,“Antibiotic resistance found in wild rodents.” Nature 401 (1999): 233.
668.See, for example, Das, I., Fraise, A., and Wise, R., “Are glycopeptide-resistant enterococci in animals a threat to human beings?” Lancet 349 (1997): 997-998; Ike, Y., Tanimoto, K., Ozawa, Y.,et al., “Vancomycin-resistant enterococci in imported chickens in Japan.” Lancet 353 (1999): 1854;van den Bogaard, A. E. and Stobberingh, E. E., “Contamination of animal feed by multiresistant enterococci.” Lancet 354 (1999): 163; etc..
669.例如,人类使用的关键抗生素万古霉素通过抑制粪肠球菌和肺炎链球菌等细菌的细胞壁合成而受到攻击。一种家畜生长促进剂—阿沃帕金,对细菌细胞也有同样的作用。因此,如果一个链球菌在阿伏帕金喂养的奶牛体内发生突变,在化学物质的作用下能够形成细胞壁,那么面对万古霉素,它也能够保持细胞壁的完整性。
670.For a much longer discussion of these points, see “Revenge of the Germs,” in Garrtt,L., 1994, op. cit.
671.Institute of Medicine, Antimicrobial Resistance: Issues and Options, 1998, op. cit.
672.美国医学研究所的报告估计,美国医院每年使用1.9亿剂抗生素,医生每年还要额外开1.45亿个疗程(足够几天)的抗生素治疗。兽医和牲畜对这些药物的使用也非常巨大,美国每年使用约1814369.48千克抗生素治疗动物疾病,至少约7257478千克用作生长促进剂。
673.除非另有说明,本节中的文段和其他引文均取自1998年5月作者的访谈记录。
674.American Society for Microbiology, Report of the A** Task Force on Antibiotic Resistance. Washington, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology, 1995; Report of the WHO Meeting on the Medical Impact of the Use of Antimicrobial Drugs in Food Animals, Berlin, 13-17 October 1997. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1998.
675.Pantosti, A., Del Grosso, M., Tagliabue, W., et al., “Decrease of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in poultry meat after avoparcin ban.” Lancet 354 (1999): 741-742.
676.Grady, D., 1999, op. cit.
677.汉伯格在全市范围内发起了一项运动,该市报告婴儿死亡率急剧下降,平均每1000名活产婴儿中有7.1人死亡。即使是传统的高婴儿死亡率社区,如哈莱姆区和东布鲁克林区,也出现了根本性的改善,达到了从哈莱姆区中部的6.6/1000人到莫特哈文的8.6/1000人。成功的关键是一个城市资助的儿童和孕妇保险推广计划。
更令人震惊的是汉伯格在1997年儿童疫苗接种率方面取得的成就,纽约市在全国排名第二,对81%的5岁儿童进行了全面免疫接种。关键还是要大力推广,再加上城市补贴的儿童保险。
678.Miller, J., “With crisis in mind, center opens.” New York Times (June 8, 1999): B3.
679.Thorpe, K. E., Current Population Survey. Tabulations prepared for the United Hospital Fund, New York City, 1997.
680.没有保险的纽约市居民被拒绝医疗保健的可能性是他们的私人保险人的3倍。75%的未参保中年男性从未做过前列腺检查,58%的女性没有做过**X光检查。
城市研究所回顾了1994—1996年纽约州的现有人口统计数据与美国整体的对比,并对其进行了如下评估:
来源:Holahan, J., Evans, A., Liu, K., et al., Health Policy for Low-Income People in New York.Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1997.
681.Markon, J., “Medicaid cutbacks criticized.” Newsday (January 28, 1999): A42.
682.Cantor, J., Haslanger, K., Tassi, A., et al., Health Care in New York City: Service Providers' Response to an Emerging Market. Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1998.
683.Lagnado, L., “New York study could stoke hospital debate.” Wall Street Journal(January 25, 1999): B1.
684.Lonks, J. R., Durkin, M. R., Meyerhoff, A. N., et al., “Meningitis due to ceftriaxoneresistant Streptococcus pneumoniae.” New England Journal of Medicine 332 (1995): 893-894.
685.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Surveillance for penicillinnonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae—New York City, 1995.” Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report 46 (1997): 297-299.
在全国范围内,疾病预防控制中心发现不可能复制这种监测方法—在美国只有少数社区有足够的财力监测青霉素耐药链球菌,纽约市就是这样做的。疾病预防控制中心粗略估计,在美国,每年链球菌引起3000例脑膜炎、5万例血液中毒、50万例肺炎、700万儿童耳部感染。肺炎对65岁以上的人非常危险:有40%的人死于感染。脑膜炎感染对6%的受感染儿童和1/3的中枢神经系统感染的成年人是致命的。
686.Ploy, M. C., Grelaud, C., Martin, C., et al., “First clinical isolate of vancomycinintermediate Staphylococcus aureus in a French hospital.” Lancet 351 (1998): 1212.
687.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Reduced susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus to vancomycin—Japan, 1996.” Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report 46 (1997): 624-635;Hiramatsu, K., “The emergence of Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin in Japan.” American Journal of Medicine 104 (1998): 7S-10S; and Hiramatsu, K, Hanaki, H., Ino,K., et al., “Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strain with reduced vancomycin susceptibility.” Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 40 (1997): 135-136.
688.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Update: Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin—United States, 1997.” Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report 46(1997): 813-815; Gorman, C., “Germ Warfare.” Time magazine (September 1, 1997): 65; Smith,T. L., Pearson, M. L., Wilcox, K. R., et al., “Emergence of vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus.” New England Journal of Medicine 340 (1999): 493-501; and Waldvogel, F. A., “New resistance in Staphylococcus aureus.” New England Journal of Medicine 340 (1999): 556-557.
689.Rotun, S. S., McMath, V., Schoonmaker, D. J., et al., “Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin isolated from a patient with fatal bacteremia.” Emerging Infectious Diseases 5 (1999): 147-149.
690.Chuard, C., Vaudaux, P., Waldvogel, F. A., et al., “Susceptibility of Staphylococcus aureus growing on fibronectin-coated surfaces to bactericidal antibiotics.” Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 37 (1993): 625-632.
691.Sieradzki, K., Roberts, R. B., Haber, S. W., et al., “The development of vancomycin resistance in a patient with methicllin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection.” New England Journal of Medicine 340 (1999): 517-523.
692.Waldvogel, F. A., 1999, op. cit.
693.See also Ariza, J., Pujol, M., Cabo, J., et al., “Vancomycin in surgical infections due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with heterogenous resistance to vancomycin.” Lancet 353(1999): 1587-1588; Collignon, P., Gosbell, I., Vickery, A., et al., “Community-acquired methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus in Australia.” Lancet 352 (1998): 145; Howe, R. A., Bowker, K. E.,Walsh, T. R., et al., and Lessing, M. P. A. and Rafferty, M. J., Letters. Lancet 351 (1998): 601-602;and Morris, K., “Antibiotic resistance hogs the limelight.” Lancet 349 (1997): 1674.
694.Cefai, C., Ashurst, S., and Owens, C., “Human carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus linked with pet dog.” Lancet 344 (1994): 539-540; Pate, K. R., Nolan, R. L.,Bannerman, T. L., et al., “Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the community.” Lancet 346(1995): 978; Rosenberg, J., “Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in the community:Who's watching?” Lancet 346 (1995): 132-133; and Rossi, T., Laine, J., Eerola, E., et al., “Denture carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.” Lancet 345 (1995): 1577.
695.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Four pediatric deaths from communityacquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-Minnesota and North Dakota, 1997-1999.”Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report 48 (1999): 707-710.
696.“CDC reports on drug resistant staph.” Associated Press (August 20, 1999); and Stolberg, S. G., “After 4 deaths, scientists fear germ's threat.” New York Times (August 20,1999): A17.
697.Brown, P. and Lerner, S., “Community-acquired pneumonia.” Lancet 352 (1998):1295-1302; and Holmes, A., Jacklin, A., Impallomeni, M., et al., “Community-acquired pneumonia.” Lancet 353 (1999): 1528-1529.
698.Novak, R., Henriques, B., Charpentier, E., et al., “Emergence of vancomycin tolerance in Streptococcus pneumoniae.” Nature 399 (1999): 590-593.
699.另一个灾难性的社区公共卫生问题的医院感染是丙型肝炎,它很容易通过非消毒针头、输血和不规范的医疗操作传播。到1999年,美国疾病预防控制中心估计超过400万美国人感染了这种病毒,人们面临死于肝硬化或肝癌的严重风险。
700.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention, HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Year-end edition. Vol. 10 (No. 2) (December 1998).
701.1999年8月30日,美国疾病预防控制中心在乔治亚州亚特兰大举行的全国艾滋病预防大会上提供的数据。
702.数据来自美国国家人口统计网(www.hhs.gov)。当然,状况改善并不一致。1998年,感染艾滋病病毒的白人比非洲裔美国人存活率高出10倍,非裔占当年艾滋病死亡人数的一半。从1996年到1998年,白人艾滋病死亡率下降了73%,而非裔的艾滋病死亡率下降了52%。这些年来,西班牙裔艾滋病死亡率下降了63%。同上
从1995年到1998年,纽约市艾滋病死亡率下降了88%。但是在1998年纽约市,与艾滋病病毒阳性的白人男性相比,艾滋病阳性妇女死于艾滋病的可能性仍然高出34%,非洲裔美国人死于艾滋病的可能性高出150%。1999年8月30日,在乔治亚州亚特兰大全国艾滋病病毒预防会议上的发言中说道:“纽约市按性别和种族划分的艾滋病死亡率的差异性下降”。“在纽约的注射毒品使用者中,艾滋病病毒血清流行率从1990年的27.2%骤降到1998年的4.3%,主要是因为纯海洛因在1990年代末变得非常便宜,而且很容易买到,使用者可以用鼻涕而不是注射毒品。而且针头交换项目在注射毒品使用者中越来越受欢迎,因此共用针头的数量也越来越少。”
703.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Primary and secondary syphilis.”Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48 (1999): 873-878.
704.Comments at a press conference, National HIV Prevention Conference, Atlanta,Georgia, August 30, 1999.
705.这些数字来自瑞士日内瓦的联合国艾滋病规划署1998年和1999年年度报告。根据联合国艾滋病规划署的资料,到1998年年底,这一流行病的传播情况如下:
706.Gao, F., Bailes, E., Robertson, D. L., et al., “Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes.” Nature 397 (1999): 436-441; and Weiss, R. A. and Wrangham, R. W.,“From Pan to pandemic.” Nature 397 (1999): 385-386.
707.Cowley, G., “Is AIDS forever?” Newsweek (July 6, 1998): 60-61; DeCock, K.,Presentation to the Human Retrovirus Conference. Chicago, Illinois, February 1, 1998; and Garrett, L., “Staggering trend: HIV pandemic worsening among Africa, Asia youth.” Newsday(November 24, 1998): A7.
708.Baltimore, Miami, New Orleans, Houston, Denver, and Los Angeles.
709.Baltimore, Dallas, Los Angeles, Miami, New York City, San Francisco, and Seattle.
710.这些研究是1999年8月30日在乔治亚州亚特兰大,由美国疾病预防控制中心在全国艾滋病预防大会上公布的。
711.Garrett, L., “The uncounted: New estimates show tens of thousands of New Yorkers may be unknowingly infected with HIV.” Newsday (August 18, 1998): C1.
712.此部分刊登在1999年3月的《绅士》杂志上。应家属要求,姓氏已被隐去。
713.Brown, D., “Triple-drug therapies are changing patterns, costs of AIDS treatment.”Washington Post (January 27, 1997): A4; Dunlap, D. W., “Hype, hope and hurt on the AIDS front lines.” New York Times (February 2, 1997): E3; Garrett, L., “A home run: Detectable traces of HIV gone from patients' bodies in short-term clinical trials.” Newsday (January 30,1996): A5; and Martone, W. J. and Phair, J. P., “HIV protease inhibitors: When and how they should be used.” Infections in Medicine Supplement.1996.
714.Garrett, L., “Miracle Backlash.” Newsday (December 17, 1996): B19; and Garrett, L.,“New AIDS cocktails: What we fear—experts say resistance could develop.” Newsday (July 2,1996): B19.
显然,这场革命也发生在生活在贫穷国家的数百万艾滋病病毒阳性者身上,在这些国家,病人不可能用上每年花费1万至6万美元的鸡尾酒疗法。非洲疫情最严重的国家人均医疗保健支出每年都不到5美元,在这些国家,15至49岁的男女中,艾滋病病毒阳性率为20%~26%。事实上,1998年夏天,发展中国家的代表在日内瓦召开的国际艾滋病大会上要求用人们负担得起的鸡尾酒疗法,而西方研究人员开始对其长期有效性和安全性产生怀疑。这是一个具有讽刺意味的转折。
到1996年年底,美国艾滋病病毒的直接治疗费用超过了51亿美元。到1997年年中,仅在那一年的6个月里,花费就超过了67亿美元,平均每个病人2万美元。参见Bozette,S. A., Berry, S. R., Duan, N., et al., “The care of HIV-infected adults in the United States.” New England Journal of Medicine 339 (1998): 1897-1904。