第三节 WTO争端解决机制的基本流程(1 / 1)

一、磋商程序

磋商程序是WTO争端解决的第一步,是两个或两个以上的成员之间通过协商解决争端的一种方式。磋商是GATT开始已经确立的一种重要的争端解决方式,DSU为磋商制定了更加严格的程序。

(一)磋商的时限

DSB第4条第3、7、8款对磋商的时限进行了详细的规定:

3. If a request for consultations is made pursuant to a covered agreement, the Member to which the request is made shall, unless otherwise mutually agreed, reply to the request within 10 days after the date of its receipt and shall enter into consultations in good faith within a period of no more than 30 days after the date of receipt of the request, with a view to reaching a mutually satisfactory solution. If the Member does not respond within 10 days after the date of receipt of the request, or does not enter into consultations within a period of no more than 30 days, or a period otherwise mutually agreed, after the date of receipt of the request, then the Member that requested the holding of consultations may proceed directly to request the establishment of a panel.

7. If the consultations fail to settle a dispute within 60 days after the date of receipt of the request for consultations, the complaining party may request the establishment of a panel. The complaining party may request a panel during the 60-day period if the consulting parties jointly consider that consultations have failed to settle the dispute.

8. In cases of urgency, including those which concern perishable goods, Members shall enter into consultations within a period of no more than 10 days after the date of receipt of the request. If the consultations have failed to settle the dispute within a period of 20 days after the date of receipt of the request, the complaining party may request the establishment of a panel.

磋商请求所针对的成员,应当在收到请求之日起10日内作出答复,并应在收到请求之日起不超过30天的期限内进行磋商。但双方可另行商定进行磋商的时限,不受上述10天和30天的约束。如对方未在10天内作出答复,或未在30天或商定的时间内进行磋商,则请求方可直接开始申请设立专家组。如在收到磋商请求之日起60天内,磋商未能解决争端,则投诉方可以申请设立专家组。也就是说,磋商的最长期限为收到磋商请求之日起60天。但是,如果磋商各方共同认为磋商已不能解决争端,则投诉方可以不必等到60天结束,就可以申请设立专家组。

作为特例,案件涉及紧急问题时,如有关货物是容易腐烂的,各成员应在10天内进行磋商,20天内解决争端,否则就可以申请设立专家组。

值得注意的是,在实践中有些磋商会持续相当长的时间,投诉方完全可以在60天过后继续与对方进行磋商。即使投诉方不愿在60天结束后继续磋商,也不意味在60天期限一过,投诉方就立即提出设立专家组的申请。实践中,投诉方往往需要一段时间,根据磋商中得到的信息和争执的问题,准备投诉材料。

(二)磋商的要件

DSB第4条第4款对此问题进行了规定:

All such requests for consultations shall be notified to the DSB and the relevant Councils and Committees by the Member which requests consultations. Any request for consultations shall be submitted in writing and shall give the reasons for the request, including identification of the measures at issue and an indication of the legal basis for the complaint.

磋商请求应由请求磋商的成员通知DSB及有关的理事会和委员会,一般与给被诉方的磋商请求同时发出。磋商请求应采用书面形式,并应说明提出请求的理由,包括确认所争论的措施,以及指出法律依据。“措施”应当是被诉方采取的,且请求方认为正在对其根据有关协议直接或间接获得的利益造成损害的具体措施。“法律依据”是指引起争议的措施所违反的具体协议的规定。磋商请求函虽然比较简单,但必须指明措施和法律依据,与设立专家组时的请求要件是相同的。实践表明,磋商请求中未涉及的事项,专家组就很难审理。

(三)磋商的方式

根据DSU第4条第1、2、11款的规定,磋商有三种方式:单独磋商、共同磋商和加入磋商。单独磋商是指一方独自提出与另一方进行磋商,即磋商只在两个成员之间进行。联合磋商是多个成员与一成员磋商。一成员采取的某项措施,可能会影响到几个成员的利益,因此几个成员可能都会要求与该成员进行磋商。几个成员可以分别或联合提出磋商请求,而磋商共同举行。例如,欧盟、日本、韩国、中国、挪威和瑞士6国分别要求与美国就其钢铁进口限制措施举行磋商,联合磋商于2002年4月11日和12日进行。[1]加入磋商是加入其他成员已经提出的磋商。根据DSU第4款第11款规定,加入磋商的成员必须在其他成员的磋商请求“散发”[2]之日起10天内,将其磋商的意愿通知进行磋商的成员和DSB。加入磋商请求的内容比较简单,一般应被允许。但被请求磋商的成员可以认为该成员主张的实质贸易利益没有依据,而拒绝该成员加入磋商。在这种情况下,该成员可单独提出磋商请求。

除上述三个问题外,还有一个需要我们注意的问题,即磋商的保密性。DSU第4条第6款的规定:Consultations shall be confidential, and without prejudice to the rights of any Member in any further proceedings. 这意味着磋商是在保密的情况下进行的,除当事方和加入磋商方之外,其他成员不能参加,WTO工作人员也不能参加磋商。磋商不得影响当事方在进一步程序中的权利,即保密的另一个含义是,磋商中一个当事方的出价,不得被另一方事后提交专家组。但这不是说磋商中获得的信息在随后的程序中不能使用,在“韩国酒税案”中,欧共体和美国向专家组提交了在磋商中韩国提交的信息,韩国认为他们违反了保密义务。专家组指出,磋商是为了当事方收集正确、相关的信息,专家组程序也是保密的,美国和欧共体并没有违反保密义务。

二、专家组程序

与斡旋、调解和调停相比,专家组程序是争端解决的常规方式和重要程序。在DSU的27个条文中,有11个条文是专门针对专家组程序的规定,另外还有许多涉及专家组的条款。磋商不成必然导致设立专家组,而专家组程序又与上诉机构程序相连,因此专家组程序在整个WTO争端解决中处于承上启下的核心地位。

(一)专家组的设立和职能

1.专家组的设立

DSU第6条对该问题进行了规定:

Establishment of Panels

1. If the complaining party so requests, a panel shall be established at the latest at the DSB meeting following that at which the request first appears as an item on the DSB's agenda, unless at that meeting the DSB decides by consensus not to establish a panel.[3]

2. The request for the establishment of a panel shall be made in writing. It shall indicate whether consultations were held, identify the specific measures at issue and provide a brief summary of the legal basis of the complaint sufficient to present the problem clearly. In case the applicant requests the establishment of a panel with other than standard terms of reference, the written request shall include the proposed text of special terms of reference.

第一,除了涉及《纺织品与服装协定》的纠纷外[4],成立专家组前一般要经过磋商程序,前述DSU第4条第3、7、8款对磋商与专家组程序之间的衔接作了规定:一般情况下60天内,紧急情况下20天内,磋商不成功,则投诉方可请求设立专家组。

第二,一般情况下,专家组不会在第一次会议上设立,但是肯定会在专家组设立请求列入争端解决议程的第二次会议上设立,这主要是因为争端解决机制采用了“反向一致”原则,即在DSU作决定的会议上,对于请求设立专家组,通过专家组和上诉机构报告,以及请求授权中止减让,除非DSB经协商一致不同意,否则就应当批准。根据规定,“DSB应在收到请求后15日内举行会议,但要提前10天发出会议通知。”

第三,专家组设立请求应当满足4个条件:(1)设立专家组的请求应当以书面形式提出;(2)请求中应说明是否举行过磋商;(3)列明争议的措施;(4)提供相关的法律依据的概要。首先,设立专家组之前应先进行磋商,但进行“实质的”磋商并非设立专家组的必备要件。如果进行了磋商,请求中一般应简单说明磋商举行的时间;如果没有进行磋商,只要如实说明即可。[5]其次,争议措施和提供法律依据的概要是专家组设立请求中的实质内容。这两个内容与专家组职权范围有着直接的联系,一般情况下,专家组对申诉方没有提出的争议措施是没有管辖权的。这里的“措施”是指被诉方的任何行为,既可以是作为,也可以是不作为;既可以是具体行为,也可以是抽象行为。这里的“法律”,主要是指WTO的相关条款。

2.专家组的职能

DSU第7条对该问题进行了规定:

Terms of Reference of Panels

1. Panels shall have the following terms of reference unless the parties to the dispute agree otherwise within 20 days from the establishment of the panel:

“To examine, in the light of the relevant provisions in (name of the covered agreement(s) cited by the parties to the dispute), the matter referred to the DSB by (name of party) in document … and to make such findings as will assist the DSB in making the recommendations or in giving the rulings provided for in that/those agreement(s).”

2. Panels shall address the relevant provisions in any covered agreement or agreements cited by the parties to the dispute.

3. In establishing a panel, the DSB may authorize its Chairman to draw up the terms of reference of the panel in consultation with the parties to the dispute, subject to the provisions of paragraph 1. The terms of reference thus drawn up shall be circulated to all Members. If other than standard terms of reference are agreed upon, any Member may raise any point relating thereto in the DSB.

专家组的职权范围是专家组审理案件的基础,只有职权范围内的事项专家组才有管辖权。根据上述第7条规定,除非争端各方在专家组设立后20天内另有议定,专家组应按照(争端各方引用的适用协定名称)的规定,审查(争端方名称)在……文件中提交争端解决机构的事项,并提出调查结果以协助争端解决机构作出该协定规定的建议或裁决。该规定意味着,专家组的职权是由争端方的意愿决定的,这与第6条第2款的规定相契合。当然,这并不是说,专家组没有任何的自主权,“专家组应处理争端各方引用的任何适用协定的有关规定。”另外,DSB可授权其主席在遵守第1款规定的前提下,与争端各方进行磋商,制定专家组的职权范围。此种情况下,应将专家组的职权范围散发全体成员,若议定的不是职权范围,则任何成员均可在DSB中提出相关的任何问题。

实践中,有两个值得我们注意的问题:第一,争议当事方可以通过成立专家组的申请扩大或缩小专家组的审案范围。但任何成员都不能挑战专家组依法可以审理任何涉及世界贸易组织协定及其附件争议的权力。也就是说,只要有成员就其他成员的违约行为提出要求,另一方面不可以反对专家组行使对哪些协定、哪些条款进行解释的权力。[6]第二,实践中,专家组常常使用“司法节制”的方法,即并不审查投诉方的所有主张,而是在认定一些主要主张足以支持投诉方主张后,就作出有利于投诉方的裁决。[7]

DSU第21条第5款规定了专家组的另外一项职权,即对建议与裁决执行的监督。

(二)专家组的组成

1.专家的任职资格

Panels shall be composed of well-qualified governmental and/or non-governmental individuals, including persons who have served on or presented a case to a panel, served as a representative of a Member or of a contracting party to GATT 1947 or as a representative to the Council or Committee of any covered agreement or its predecessor agreement, or in the Secretariat, taught or published on international trade law or policy, or served as a senior trade policy official of a Member.

专家的选任通常注重其独立性、多样的背景和丰富的经验。根据DSU第8条第1款的规定,专家组由合格的政府和非政府人士组成,这些人包括:曾经担任过其他案件专家组成员的人、曾经在其他案件中向专家组陈述过案件的人、WTO成员常驻WTO的代表、GATT时期缔约方的代表、在相关理事会或委员会的代表、WTO秘书处人员、曾经讲授或出版过国际贸易法或国际贸易政策著作的专家、曾任WTO成员贸易政策高级官员的人。

第8条第3款建立了“回避”制度,除非当事方同意或不持异议,当事方或第三方的公民一般不得担任专家组成员。

2.专家组成员的选定和组成

第8条第4~8款和第10款详细规定了专家组成员的选定和组成问题。通常是WTO秘书处向当事方推荐专家组的成员,除非有强有力的理由,否则当事方不得拒绝。如果自专家组设立之日起20日内,当事方没有就专家组的组成达成协议,则总干事经当事方中一方的请求,可以指定专家组成员,但总干事应当与DSB主席、有关委员会或理事会主席及当事方协商。实践中,由总干事指定专家组成员的情况是很常见的。为协助选择专家组成员,秘书处存有一份具备第1款所述资格的政府和非政府人员的指示性名单,可从中选出专家组成员。各成员推荐候选人,再由DSB会议批准列入名单,名单会时常更新。实践中,专家组的成员不必都是名单上的人。

专家组由3人组成,除非争端各方在专家组成立后10天内同意专家组由5人组成。实践中,尚未出现过5人专家组的情况。为了照顾发展中国家的利益,如果争端发生在发达国家和发展中国家成员之间,若发展中国家成员提出要求,则专家组中至少应有一名成员来自发展中国家。

3.其他规定

虽然各成员的官员可以成为专家组成员,但DSU在成员纪律上提出了严格的要求。根据第8条第9款的规定,专家组成员是以个人身份任职的,既不代表政府也不代表任何组织;WTO成员也不得对专家组成员作出指示,或施加影响,干扰专家组成员公正判案。为了保障专家组成员审案时的独立、公正,DSU还专门制定了《行为守则》来规范专家组成员审案时的行为。

专家组成员的费用,包括差旅费和补贴,从WTO预算中支出。

(三)多个投诉方与第三方程序

1.多个投诉方的程序

DSU第9条规定了存在多个诉讼方时的程序:

Procedures for Multiple Complainants

1. Where more than one Member requests the establishment of a panel related to the same matter, a single panel may be established to examine these complaints taking into account the rights of all Members concerned. A single panel should be established to examine such complaints whenever feasible.

2. The single panel shall organize its examination and present its findings to the DSB in such a manner that the rights which the parties to the dispute would have enjoyed had separate panels examined the complaints are in no way impaired. If one of the parties to the dispute so requests, the panel shall submit separate reports on the dispute concerned. The written submissions by each of the complainants shall be made available to the other complainants, and each complainant shall have the right to be present when any one of the other complainants presents its views to the panel.

3. If more than one panel is established to examine the complaints related to the same matter, to the greatest extent possible the same persons shall serve as panelists on each of the separate panels and the timetable for the panel process in such disputes shall be harmonized.

该问题的规定与中国民诉法上必要的共同诉讼比较类似,当一个成员的措施损害到多个成员的利益时,这些受影响的成员往往都会将这个措施诉诸WTO的争端解决机制。为了节约诉讼资源、迅速解决争端、避免出现裁决不一致的情况,DSU对多个投诉方的程序进行了规定。

如果几个成员就同一事项请求设立专家组,只要可行,就应设立单一专家组。而如果不得不设立几个专家组,则应尽可能由相同人员担任专家组成员,并且不同专家组程序的时间表应当进行协调。当然,成立一个专家组审查多个投诉方的要求时,应当注意确保争端各当事方本来享有的请求成立独立专家组审查其投诉的权利不受损害:(1)如果任何一个争端方提出这样的请求,则专家组应当就有关的争端单独作出报告;(2)对于每个投诉方提交的书面陈述,应保证其他投诉方均能获得;(3)每一个投诉方有权在其他投诉方向专家组陈述意见时在场。

2.第三方程序

第三方程序是WTO争端解决程序中很有特色的一个制度。DSU第10条对该制度进行了详细的规定:

Third Parties

1. The interests of the parties to a dispute and those of other Members under a covered agreement at issue in the dispute shall be fully taken into account during the panel process.

2. Any Member having a substantial interest in a matter before a panel and having notified its interest to the DSB (referred to in this Understanding as a “third party”) shall have an opportunity to be heard by the panel and to make written submissions to the panel. These submissions shall also be given to the parties to the dispute and shall be reflected in the panel report.

3. Third parties shall receive the submissions of the parties to the dispute to the first meeting of the panel.

4. If a third party considers that a measure already the subject of a panel proceeding nullifies or impairs benefits accruing to it under any covered agreement, that Member may have recourse to normal dispute settlement procedures under this Understanding. Such a dispute shall be referred to the original panel wherever possible.

专家组在审理案件时,既要考虑争端方的利益也要兼顾其他相关成员的利益。第三方程序的建立即是为了达到综合平衡各方利益的目的,保证第三方能够为了自身的利益充分参与“诉讼”。

根据上述规定:首先,任何一个成员都可以通知DSB作为第三方参与案件的审理,只要其对该案的争议事项具有“实质性利益”。DSU并未在条文中对何谓“实质性利益”进行进一步界定,但在实践中却没有引起太多的争议,专家组对“实质性利益”的理解相当宽泛。在WTO争端解决的实践中,尚无成员提出作为第三方参与争端解决而被拒绝的先例。[8]关于通知的方式、时间等问题,DSU也没有作出明确规定。根据1994年理事会会议的一项安排(见WTO文件:C/COM/3),要想成为第三方,在设立专家组的DSB会议上,只需口头表示即可。会议主席会宣布专家组的成立,谁愿意作为第三方,就可以举牌示意。如果没有参加这次会议或在这次会议上还没有决定是否作为第三方,则可在会后10天内要求作为第三方。其次,作为第三方的权利:(1)第三方有权向专家组陈述其意见,并有权提交书面陈述,该书面陈述应当分发各争端当事方,并在专家组报告中有所体现;(2)第三方有权收到争端各方在第一次会议上提交的书面陈述;(3)如果第三方认为专家组正在审议的某项措施造成其根据任何协定项下的利益的抵消或减损,则其有权援用DSU项下的正常争端解决程序,一般情况下该争端会提交原专家组。另外,根据DSU附件3《工作程序》的规定,第三方有权参加第一次实质性会议期间为其召开的会议并发表意见。

(四)专家组审案程序

1.专家组的工作程序

DSU的第12条和附件3《工作程序》对此作了明确规定,包括工作程序、书面陈述、实质性会议、专家组报告和审理期限等问题。

虽然第12条和附件3对工作程序作了明确的规定,但具体案件中专家组常常需要制订专门的程序。专家组成立后需要与当事方举行“组织会议”,商定工作程序和时间表。在此过程中,确定专家组程序的原则是既要有足够的灵活性以便获得高质量的专家组报告,同时又要避免不适当地延误案件的审理期限;专家组应为争端方准备陈述提供充裕的时间。在不能达成一致意见时,专家组有权确定工作程序,但不得修改DSU的明确规定。专家组与争端方应尽可能在专家组成立和职责范围确定后一周内,确定工作程序和时间表。

一般情况下,投诉方应当将书面陈述先行提交专家组,然后应诉方再行提交。但是,专家组与争端方协商一致后,双方也可同时提交书面陈述。实践中,专家组还会要求提供陈述概要,主要是因为书面陈述的篇幅往往很长。书面陈述提交后,专家组会根据时间表召开实质性会议(即通常所说的“听证会”或开庭),争端方按照先投诉方后应诉方的顺序进行口头陈述,然后相互提问,专家组也可以提问。第一次实质性会议结束后,争端方针对会议上出现的问题准备第二次书面陈述。第二次实质性会议主要是争端方针对焦点问题进行辩论。

专家组审案过程中,如果双方达成了协议,则专家组报告只需要对案情进行简要介绍,且说明协议已达成即可。如争端各方未能形成双方满意的解决方法,专家组应以书面报告的形式向DSB提交调查结果。在此种情况下,专家组报告应列出对事实的调查结果、有关规定的适用性及其所作任何调查结果和建议所包含的基本理由。

专家组报告应当在6个月内(从专家组组成和职责范围确定之日起到最终报告提交争端各方时止)作出,对于紧急案件,审限为3个月。如果专家组认为不能在这段时间内完成报告,则应书面通知DSB其延迟的原因及预计提交报告的时间,但无论如何,从专家组成立到向成员散发报告的时间不能超过9个月。[9]此外,案件审理过程中,投诉方可以请求专家组随时中止其工作,但是请求中止的时限不得超过12个月,同时DSU对专家组的程序、DSB的决定、建议和裁决的实施等所规定的时限应作相应的延长。如果发展中成员作为被诉方,DSU规定应给予其充分的时间以准备和提交论据。

2.中期审议阶段

中期审议是专家组审案程序中重要的一环,DSU第15条对此进行了详细规定:

Interim Review Stage

1. Following the consideration of rebuttal submissions and oral arguments, the panel shall issue the descriptive (factual and argument) sections of its draft report to the parties to the dispute. Within a period of time set by the panel, the parties shall submit their comments in writing.

2. Following the expiration of the set period of time for receipt of comments from the parties to the dispute, the panel shall issue an interim report to the parties, including both the descriptive sections and the panel's findings and conclusions. Within a period of time set by the panel, a party may submit a written request for the panel to review precise aspects of the interim report prior to circulation of the final report to the Members. At the request of a party, the panel shall hold a further meeting with the parties on the issues identified in the written comments. If no comments are received from any party within the comment period, the interim report shall be considered the final panel report and circulated promptly to the Members.

3. The findings of the final panel report shall include a discussion of the arguments made at the interim review stage. The interim review stage shall be conducted within the time-period set out in paragraph 8 of Article 12.

中期审议阶段是成员方对专家组报告草案进行评价,纠正其错误的重要阶段。在考虑书面辩驳和口头辩论后,专家组应向争端各方提交其报告草案中的描述部分。描述部分是对当事方提交的事实和观点所作的概要。争端方应当在规定时间内,对描述部分是否准确、清晰地表达了有关事实和观点提出书面意见。然后,专家组应当向争端方提交整个专家组报告的草案,包括描述部分和裁决部分。争端方可以就报告中的具体方面要求专家组进行审议。如果一争端方提出要求,专家组应与争端方再次进行会议,就这些具体方面进行讨论。如果争端方没有在专家组规定的时间内提出书面意见,则该报告草案就应当被视为最终报告。最终报告先提交争端方,然后翻译成WTO其他官方语言向其他WTO成员散发。最终报告中应包括争端方对中期报告的评审情况。

3.专家组报告的通过

中期审议阶段结束后,是专家组报告通过的程序,DSU第16条对此进行了规定:

Adoption of Panel Reports

1. In order to provide sufficient time for the Members to consider panel reports, the reports shall not be considered for adoption by the DSB until 20 days after the date they have been circulated to the Members.

2. Members having objections to a panel report shall give written reasons to explain their objections for circulation at least 10 days prior to the DSB meeting at which the panel report will be considered.

3. The parties to a dispute shall have the right to participate fully in the consideration of the panel report by the DSB, and their views shall be fully recorded.

4. Within 60 days after the date of circulation of a panel report to the Members, the report shall be adopted at a DSB meeting[10] unless a party to the dispute formally notifies the DSB of its decision to appeal or the DSB decides by consensus not to adopt the report. If a party has notified its decision to appeal, the report by the panel shall not be considered for adoption by the DSB until after completion of the appeal. This adoption procedure is without prejudice to the right of Members to express their views on a panel report.

为了使各成员方对专家组报告有充足的时间进行考虑,DSB在报告散发之日起20天内不能考虑通过该报告。但是,在报告散发之日起60日内,报告应该在DSB会议上通过。也就是说,报告应当自散发之日起20~60天内通过,但是有两个例外:一是,争端一方已经正式将其上诉决定通知DSB;二是,DSB协商一致不通过该报告。第一种情况下,上诉完成之前,专家组报告不会被考虑通过。第二种情况基本上不会发生,因为采取否定一致原则,专家组报告是自动通过的。

专家组报告通过程序无损于各成员就专家组报告发表意见的权利。各成员如果对专家组报告有反对意见,应至少在DSB开会讨论通过报告的10天前,提出解释其异议的书面理由,以供DSB散发给其他WTO成员。各成员有权充分参与专家组报告通过程序,其意见应被充分记录在案。

(五)专家组的信息寻求权和保密义务

1.信息寻求权

DSU第13条规定:

Right to Seek Information

1. Each panel shall have the right to seek information and technical advice from any individual or body which it deems appropriate. However, before a panel seeks such information or advice from any individual or body within the jurisdiction of a Member it shall inform the authorities of that Member. A Member should respond promptly and fully to any request by a panel for such information as the panel considers necessary and appropriate. Confidential information which is provided shall not be revealed without formal authorization from the individual, body, or authorities of the Member providing the information.

2. Panels may seek information from any relevant source and may consult experts to obtain their opinion on certain aspects of the matter. With respect to a factual issue concerning a scientific or other technical matter raised by a party to a dispute, a panel may request an advisory report in writing from an expert review group. Rules for the establishment of such a group and its procedures are set forth in Appendix 4.

根据上述规定,专家组在庭审中有权通过两种方式主动进行资料的搜集。第一,专家组可以向个人或组织搜集资料、寻求建议。专家组在向某一成员所辖的任何个人或机构索取资料之前,应通知该成员的主管机关。成员应迅速和全面地答复专家组提出的关于提供其认为必要和适当信息的任何请求。专家组对于有关方面所提供的机密信息,未经同意或授权不得对外披露。第二,设立专家审议小组。对于案件中所涉及的科学或其他技术性问题之事实问题,专家组可以请求专家审议小组提出书面的咨询报告。专家审议小组的成员最终由专家组确定,专家审议小组听从专家组指挥,其职权、活动规则及程序等问题在DSU附件4中有明确规定。

实践中,专家组会收到非争端方主动向专家组提交与案件相关的资料,被称为“法庭之友”的意见。

2.保密义务

专家组对案件的审议情况是保密的,DSU第14条对该问题进行了规定:

Confidentiality

1. Panel deliberations shall be confidential.

2. The reports of panels shall be drafted without the presence of the parties to the dispute in the light of the information provided and the statements made.

3. Opinions expressed in the panel report by individual panelists shall be anonymous.

具体看,该规定比较笼统,专家组在起草报告时当事方不能在场,主要是根据已经提交的信息和所作的陈述完成报告。专家的个人意见在专家组报告中应当是匿名的。

三、上诉机构程序

上诉机构程序是WTO争端解决制度中的重要一环。与磋商制度和专家组制度相比,上诉制度是WTO争端解决机制的一大创新,有助于强化该机制解决争端的能力,使之更具有准司法机构的特点。上诉机构程序主要是规定在DSU第17条和《上诉审议工作程序》中。

(一)常设上诉机构

1.上诉机构成员的来源和组成

上诉机构由具有公认权威并在法律、国际贸易和各适用协定所设主题方面具有公认专门知识的人员组成。上诉机构的成员通常具有广泛的代表性。[11]

常设上诉机构由7人组成,其中1人担任主席,由成员选举决定。主席任期为一年,但经成员决定可连任一次。主席负责管理上诉机构的内部运作及成员认为必要的其他事项。上诉机构成员首先由WTO各成员代表提名,然后由WTO总干事、DSB主席、总理事会主席、货物贸易理事会主席、服务贸易理事会主席和知识产权理事会主席联合提出建议名单,再由DSB正式任命。

2.上诉机构成员任期及审案

上诉机构任期为4年,可以连任1次。但是,对于在《WTO协定》生效后即被任命的7人,其中有3人的任期是2年。名额一旦空缺,即应补足。但是如果被接替者任期未满,则接替者只在余下的时间任职。

上诉机构审理案件实行轮换制,按照上诉机构工作程序具体实施。按照轮换制分工,应考虑随意选择、不可预见及机会均等原则。任何一个上诉案件均由3人负责审理,其中1人经选举担任本案主席,负责协调案件审理的整个过程,主持听证会和有关会议并协调起草上诉机构报告。对于案件的决定应完全由这3人作出,其他决定则由上诉机构集体作出。

3.纪律要求及费用负担

上诉机构的成员不隶属于任何政府,不应从任何国际组织、政府组织、非政府组织或私人那里接受或寻求指示,也不得参与审议可能导致利益冲突的争端。上诉机构成员应当随时待命,将其行踪通知WTO秘书处。另外,他们还应随时了解争端解决活动及WTO的其他有关活动。

上诉机构成员的费用,包括差旅费和生活津贴,由WTO预算支出。

(二)上诉机构的程序

1.工作程序

(1)上诉的启动。争端方上诉时,应当书面通知DSB,并将所有文件同时送交案件所有参与方。上诉同时向WTO秘书处提交上诉通知。上诉通知应包括专家组报告的名称、上诉的性质、专家组报告在法律问题和法律解释方面的错误。

(2)上诉方书面陈述。上诉方应当在提出上诉通知后10日内,向秘书处提交其书面陈述,同时送交其他参加方。其内容主要包括:对上诉依据的准确表述,包括专家组报告在法律问题和法律解释方面的具体问题,和支持上诉主张的法律观点;对所依据的有关协议和其他法律渊源规定的准确表述;要求上诉机构作出裁决的性质。

(3)被上诉方书面陈述。被上诉方应当在上诉通知提出后25天内,向秘书处提交书面陈述,同时将该陈述送交其他参与方。其内容主要包括:反对上诉方书面陈述的法律观点;对上诉方书面陈述中每个依据的接受或反对;所依据的法律的列举;要求上诉机构所作裁决的性质。

(4)多个上诉。上诉通知作出后15日内,上诉方之外的原争端方可以加入该上诉,也可以就专家组报告中的其他法律错误提起上诉。其他争端方单独提起上诉,可以在上诉通知作出后的15日内提起,也可以在专家组报告散发后60日内提起。

(5)第三方参与。专家组程序中的第三方并没有上诉权,但可以向上诉机构提交书面陈述,并参加有关会议。第三方可以在上诉通知作出后25天内提交书面陈述。没有提交书面陈述的第三方亦应在此段期间内通知秘书处是否出席听证会及是否发言。未提交书面陈述,亦未按时通知秘书处的第三方,仍有机会参加听证会并发言,但此种通知应尽早以书面作出。

(6)听证会。上诉机构一般应当在上诉通知作出后30天内召开听证会,确定听证会日期后应尽早通知参加方。

(7)撤回上诉。在上诉审议程序的任何阶段,上诉方都可以通知上诉机构撤回上诉。上诉机构应将撤回上诉的情况通知DSB。

2.其他程序

(1)保密。上诉程序是保密的,上诉机构应当在当事方不在场的情况下,根据上诉机构程序中获得的信息和各方面的陈述及对问题的答复材料等,作出报告;上诉机构成员在报告中发表意见采取匿名的方式。

(2)决策程序及审查范围。上诉机构及负责具体案件的成员应尽量协商一致作出决定,如果无法达成一致,则由多数票决定。不同意见可以写入报告,但不应当指明持不同意见者的姓名。

上诉机构只审查专家组报告中的法律问题和法律解释,对于事实的认定应由专家组作出。但在实践中,何为法律问题,何为事实问题却不容易分清。上诉机构在“欧共体荷尔蒙案”中曾经指出,对于某件事情于何时何地发生,是否属于事实问题,例如有关国际组织是否通过了一项国际标准;对于某项证据应当如何对待,是否属于事实认定的过程,这些应由专家组进行评价。但某项事实与条约的某项规定的一致性,则属于法律问题。另外,专家组是否对有关事实进行了客观评估,也属于法律问题。对于上诉中提到的专家组报告中的法律问题和法律解释方面的错误,上诉机构都应当提出处理意见。但是,对于上诉中没有提及的法律问题,上诉机构不能裁决。上诉机构可以维持、修改或撤销专家组报告的法律观点和结论。在上诉涉及多个法律问题的情况下,上诉机构可以分别作出维持、修改或撤销的决定。

(3)审理期限。自当事方正式通知其上诉决定之日,到上诉机构报告散发WTO成员,一般不应超过60天。此外,涉及紧急情况的案件,例如涉及易腐货物,还应当尽量加快程序。如果不能在60天内提交报告,应书面通知DSB迟延的原因,以及提交报告的估计期限。但整个上诉程序不得超过90天。实践中,有超过这个时限的情况。

(4)上诉报告的通过。上诉报告在散发WTO成员后30天内,DSB应当在会议上通过该报告,除非DSB经协商一致不通过该报告。在DSB会议上,WTO各成员可以发表意见,但不影响报告的通过。

四、争端解决机制中的仲裁程序

DSU第25条对仲裁进行了规定:

Arbitration

1. Expeditious arbitration within the WTO as an alternative means of dispute settlement can facilitate the solution of certain disputes that concern issues that are clearly defined by both parties.

2. Except as otherwise provided in this Understanding, resort to arbitration shall be subject to mutual agreement of the parties which shall agree on the procedures to be followed. Agreements to resort to arbitration shall be notified to all Members sufficiently in advance of the actual commencement of the arbitration process.

3. Other Members may become party to an arbitration proceeding only upon the agreement of the parties which have agreed to have recourse to arbitration. The parties to the proceeding shall agree to abide by the arbitration award. Arbitration awards shall be notified to the DSB and the Council or Committee of any relevant agreement where any Member may raise any point relating thereto.

4. Articles 21 and 22 of this Understanding shall apply mutatis mutandis to arbitration awards.

仲裁程序也是乌拉圭回合的创新。对于双方都已明确的事项产生的争议,可以选择仲裁作为解决争端的替代手段。但仲裁是在WTO体制内的,即WTO的规定应当遵守,比如,仲裁结果应当符合有关协定的规定,并且不得增加或减少各成员的权利和义务。[12]

诉诸仲裁需经当事方同意,[13]并共同确定仲裁程序。仲裁开始前,应将仲裁协议通知所有的成员方。当事方应当遵守仲裁裁决。若其他成员参与仲裁程序,需要得到当事方的同意。仲裁裁决应当通报DSB和相关协定的理事会或委员会,而任何成员都可以就仲裁裁决提出问题。

五、争端解决机制的执行程序

为了使专家组报告或上诉机构报告能够得到迅速的执行,DSU第21条规定了DSB对建议和裁决执行的具体监督措施。

(一)通报及合理期限

DSU第21条第3款对此问题进行了规定:

At a DSB meeting held within 30 days[14] after the date of adoption of the panel or Appellate Body report, the Member concerned shall inform the DSB of its intentions in respect of implementation of the recommendations and rulings of the DSB. If it is impracticable to comply immediately with the recommendations and rulings, the Member concerned shall have a reasonable period of time in which to do so. The reasonable period of time shall be:

(a)the period of time proposed by the Member concerned, provided that such period is approved by the DSB; or, in the absence of such approval,

(b)a period of time mutually agreed by the parties to the dispute within 45 days after the date of adoption of the recommendations and rulings; or, in the absence of such agreement,

(c)a period of time determined through binding arbitration within 90 days after the date of adoption of the recommendations and rulings.[15] In such arbitration, a guideline for the arbitrator[16] should be that the reasonable period of time to implement panel or Appellate Body recommendations should not exceed 15 months from the date of adoption of a panel or Appellate Body report. However, that time may be shorter or longer, depending upon the particular circumstances.

在专家组或上诉机构报告通过后30天内举行的DSB会议上,有关成员应将执行建议和裁决的意愿通知DSB。裁决和建议应当迅速被实施,但是若立即实施不切实际,则应确定一个合理的执行期限。合理期限由有关成员自己提出,并经DSB批准的期限;若不能确定,当事方可以在报告通过后45天内经过协商确定期限;若不能达成一致,则在报告通过后90天内通过仲裁来确定期限。

另外,根据DSU第21条第4款规定,执行期限的确定有一个最后的期限,即从专家组设立之日起不得超过15个月。如果由于专家组或上诉机构不能如期完成报告而延长了时间,则应在15个月之外加上所延长的时间,但所有时间相加一般不应超过18个月。

(二)对实施期限进行裁决的仲裁

如上文所述,若败诉方提出的执行裁决或建议的期限没有被DSB批准,且当事方不能在规定的时间内达成协议,则当事方可以通过仲裁确定执行期限。通常胜诉方提出仲裁,然后双方选择仲裁员,当事方在决定仲裁后10天内确定仲裁员(可以是一人,也可以是几人),将人选通知WTO总干事。总干事通知仲裁员,并且在该仲裁员同意后,开始仲裁。当事方提交书面陈述,仲裁员召开听证会。实施成员应当提出一个合理期限,并且证明这是实施裁决所必需的期限;提出时间越长,就越需要证明。胜诉方可以提出反驳。最后,仲裁员根据具体情况作出裁决。裁决对双方均有约束力。[17]

(三)争议及监督

DSU第21条第5、6款对这两个问题进行了规定:

5. Where there is disagreement as to the existence or consistency with a covered agreement of measures taken to comply with the recommendations and rulings such dispute shall be decided through recourse to these dispute settlement procedures, including wherever possible resort to the original panel. The panel shall circulate its report within 90 days after the date of referral of the matter to it. When the panel considers that it cannot provide its report within this time frame, it shall inform the DSB in writing of the reasons for the delay together with an estimate of the period within which it will submit its report.

6. The DSB shall keep under surveillance the implementation of adopted recommendations or rulings. The issue of implementation of the recommendations or rulings may be raised at the DSB by any Member at any time following their adoption. Unless the DSB decides otherwise, the issue of implementation of the recommendations or rulings shall be placed on the agenda of the DSB meeting after six months following the date of establishment of the reasonable period of time pursuant to paragraph 3 and shall remain on the DSB's agenda until the issue is resolved. At least 10 days prior to each such DSB meeting, the Member concerned shall provide the DSB with a status report in writing of its progress in the implementation of the recommendations or rulings.

如果对某项执行DSB的建议或裁决而采取的措施是否与有关的协定保持一致而存在争议,仍可以通过WTO的争端解决程序来解决。也就是说,磋商、专家组和上诉程序均可以在这种争议中使用。设立专家组时尽量使用原来的专家组,专家组应当在90天内就此作出裁决。如果专家组在此期限内不能完成报告,则应书面通知DSB迟延的原因,以及提交报告的估计期限。实践中,专家组审案时,不限于先前程序中所提出的主张、观点和事实。这主要是因为实施裁决的措施案虽与原案有关联,但涉及的却是新的、不同的措施。

DSB应当监督裁决实施情况,任何成员都可以随时提出有关实施的问题。除非DSB另有决定,在确定了执行合理期限6个月后,DSB应将建议或裁决的执行问题列入DSB会议的议程,并一直保留在会议议程上,直到问题最后解决。在DSB每次会议召开前10天,有关成员应向DSB提交裁决实施进展情况的报告。

(四)发展中国家

DSU对发展中国家对建议或裁决的执行问题进行了专门的规定,主要包括DSU第21条第2、7、8款。

2. Particular attention should be paid to matters affecting the interests of developing country Members with respect to measures which have been subject to dispute settlement.

7. If the matter is one which has been raised by a developing country Member, the DSB shall consider what further action it might take which would be appropriate to the circumstances.

8. If the case is one brought by a developing country Member, in considering what appropriate action might be taken, the DSB shall take into account not only the trade coverage of measures complained of, but also their impact on the economy of developing country Members concerned.

对于影响到发展中国家利益的情况应当给予特殊的考虑。比如,在确定合理期限时,应当考虑发展中国家成员在实施裁决中可能遇到的巨大困难。如果有关事项是由发展中国家提出的,则DSB应当考虑采取适当的进一步行动,敦促发达国家成员履行建议或裁决。如果案件是由发展中国家提起的,DSB不仅要考虑被控措施所涉及的贸易范围,而且还要考虑对发展中国家成员经济可能造成的巨大影响。

六、争端解决机制所提供的救济方式

WTO多边机制所寻求的目的之一是成员间权利和义务的大体平衡。在某成员采取的措施违反了有关协定,影响了其他成员应得利益,并且在WTO作出裁决后仍然实施这些措施的情况下,其他成员显然应当有权采取救济措施——要求补偿或中止实施相应的减让。DSU第22条通过9个条款规定了“补偿和中止减让”的问题。

(一)补偿

DSU第22条第2款规定:If the Member concerned fails to bring the measure found to be inconsistent with a covered agreement into compliance therewith or otherwise comply with the recommendations and rulings within the reasonable period of time determined pursuant to paragraph 3 of Article 21, such Member shall, if so requested, and no later than the expiry of the reasonable period of time, enter into negotiations with any party having invoked the dispute settlement procedures, with a view to developing mutually acceptable compensation. If no satisfactory compensation has been agreed within 20 days after the date of expiry of the reasonable period of time, any party having invoked the dispute settlement procedures may request authorization from the DSB to suspend the application to the Member concerned of concessions or other obligations under the covered agreements.

根据该规定,如果相关方未能在合理的期限内执行DSB的建议和裁决,则应投诉方请求,必须在合理期限届满前与被诉方就补偿所涉及的部门或协定进行补偿谈判。补偿,不是指由于某成员采取的措施给其他成员造成了贸易损失而提供赔偿,而是在执行裁决的合理期限过后,这些措施仍不能修改或取消的情况下,由于该成员继续实施这些措施而给其他受到影响的成员提供补偿。因此,补偿不是追溯性的,而是前瞻性的。补偿的方式一般也不是提供金钱,而是在这些措施所影响领域之外的方面,给其他成员更多的贸易机会,例如降低其他产品的关税,或其他方面提供更多的市场准入机会等。[18]补偿是完全自愿的,如果在合理期限届满之日起20日内未达成双方满意的补偿,则胜诉方可以请求DSB授权对该成员中止减让或其他义务。

(二)中止减让或其他义务

中止减让或其他义务是对败诉方不在合理时间内实施建议或裁决的报复措施,当然其目的主要是为了能够形成贸易上权利和义务的平衡,促使败诉方遵守相关的协定。

1.原则和程序

DSU第22条第3~6款对此问题进行了规定。首先,胜诉方应在其利益受到损害或丧失的相同部门内寻求中止减让,一般被称为平行报复。其次,若上述手段不可行或没有效力,则胜诉方可以选择相同协定中的其他部门中止减让或其他义务。[19]最后,若第二种手段亦不可行或没有效力,且情况十分严重,则胜诉方可以在另一协定项下中止减让或其他义务。[20]具体来说,胜诉方在选择报复方式时,应当考虑以下因素:裁决所认定领域的贸易状况,以及这种贸易对自己的重要性;与受损利益相关的更为广泛的经济因素和报复的更为广泛的经济后果。

总的来讲,DSB授权的中止减让或其他义务的程度应当与利益抵消或减损的程度相当。如适用协定禁止中止减让或其他义务,则DSB不得授权此类中止。DSB应当在合理期限结束后30天内审议胜诉方的请求,授权报复,基于决策机制的“反向一致”性,授权肯定会被批准。

2.报复中的仲裁

DSU第22条第6款规定:When the situation described in paragraph 2 occurs, the DSB, upon request, shall grant authorization to suspend concessions or other obligations within 30 days of the expiry of the reasonable period of time unless the DSB decides by consensus to reject the request. However, if the Member concerned objects to the level of suspension proposed, or claims that the principles and procedures set forth in paragraph 3 have not been followed where a complaining party has requested authorization to suspend concessions or other obligations pursuant to paragraph 3(b) or (c), the matter shall be referred to arbitration. Such arbitration shall be carried out by the original panel, if members are available, or by an arbitrator[21] appointed by the Director-General and shall be completed within 60 days after the date of expiry of the reasonable period of time. Concessions or other obligations shall not be suspended during the course of the arbitration.

按照该规定,如果有关成员对报复水平提出异议,或者指控实施报复措施的一方未遵守交叉报复的程序和规则,则可以将该事项提交仲裁。仲裁员应当聘请原专家组的成员担任,若不能实现,则由WTO总干事指定仲裁员。仲裁应当在合理期限期满之日起60天内作出,且仲裁期间报复不得实施。