本章主要介绍了合作推理作为一种不同于教师授课的教学方法在提高学生高级思维方面的显著作用。正是因为合作推理的积极作用，这种交互式教学法应当在课堂上更广泛地使用，而不仅仅限于阅读训练。合作推理的顺利实施依赖于教师和学生的合作。学生应当增强自主学习意识，在讨论中积极发言，围绕核心问题自由选择讨论的话题，清晰地表达自己的观点，尊重他人的观点并给出合理的反馈。教师则要鼓励学生自由发言，把自主权交给学生，在讨论过程中示范如何提出论点和论据，如何为自己的论证提供证据支持，以及如何与他人合作。如果学生欠缺必要的背景知识，教师需要在开始小组讨论之前为学生补充这方面的知识，在开始讨论之后及时纠错以保证讨论可以高效地完成。总结起来，合作推理的目的是给学生提供一个平台，以便学生在自己的最近发展区内提升认知能力和交流能力。课堂，作为学生最频繁互动和交流的场所，应当成为学生营造集体意识，积极共享信息的平台，从而促进学生认知能力和高级思维的发展。

摘要Abstract

This book chapter reviewed the literatures on how Collaborative Reasoning (CR), a self-managed, peed-led discussion format, promotes learners’ higher-order thinking.Children who participated in CR discussion showed great improvements in argumentation, relational thinking, and problem solving.The positive results of CR approach suggested that it is a promising instructional format to be implemented in classrooms.A successful CR discussion relies on the collaboration of teacher and students.Teachers are supposed to release the control of interpretation, turn taking, topic, and content learning to students.Students, on the other hand, should take more responsibility for managing the discussion and articulating their thinking.In the end, this chapter mentioned several weaknesses of CR approach and provided suggestions for teachers to adjust the implementation of CR approach to learning contexts and students’ needs.

Keywords

collaborative reasoning, higher-order thinking, panel discussion, co-construction of the knownledge

参考文献Reference

Adams，G.L.& Engelmann，S.(1996).Research in Direct Instruction: 25 Years Beyond DISTAR.Seattle，WA: Educational Achievement Systems.

Agosto，D.E.(2002).Bounded rationality and satisficing in young people's Webbased decision making.Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology，53(1)，16-27.

Anderson.L.W.& Krathwohl，D.R.(Eds.) (2001).A taxonomy for learning，teaching，and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives.New York: Longman.

Anderson，R.C.，Chinn，C.，Waggoner，M.& Nguyen-Jahiel，K.(1998).Intellectually stimulating story discussions.In J.Osborn & F.Lehr (Eds.)，Literacy for all: Issues in teaching and learning.(pp.170-186).New York: Guilford.

Anderson，R.C.，Nguyen-Jahiel，K.，McNurlen，B.，Archodidou，A.，Kim，S.Y.，Reznitskaya，A.，...& Gilbert，L.(2001).The snowball phenomenon: Spread of ways of talking and ways of thinking across groups of children.Cognition and instruction，19(1)，1-46.

Azmitia，M.(1988).Peer interaction and problem solving: When are two heads better than one? Child Development，59，87-96.

Barnett，S.M.& Ceci，S.J.(2002).When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer.Psychological bulletin，128(4)，612.

Beyth-Marom，R.，Fischhoff，B.，Quadrel，M.J.& Furby，L.(1991).Teaching decision making to adolescents: A critical review.In J.Baron & R.V.Brown (Eds.) Teaching decision making to adolescents (pp.19-59).Hillsdale，NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Brookhart，S.M.(2010).How to assess higher-order thinking skills in your classroom.ASCD.

Chall，J.S.(2000).The Academic Achievement Challenge: What Really Works in the Classroom.The Guilford Press.

Chi，M.T.& VanLehn，K.A.(2012).Seeing deep structure from the interactions of surface features.Educational Psychologist，47(3)，177-188.

Clark，A.，Anderson，R.C.，Kuo，L.，Kim，I.H.，Archodidou，A.& Nguyen-Jahiel,K.(2003).Collaborative reasoning: Expanding ways for children to talk and think in school.Educational Psychology Review，15，181-198.

Day，S.B.& Goldstone，R.L.(2012).The import of knowledge export: Connecting findings and theories of transfer of learning.Educational Psychologist，47(3)，153-176.

Dong，T.，Anderson，R.C.，Kim，I.H.& Li，Y.(2008).Collaborative reasoning in China and Korea.Reading Research Quarterly，43，400-424.

Ennis，R.H.(1991).Critical thinking: A streamlined conception.Teaching Philosophy，14 (1)，5-25.

Fawcett，L.M.& Garton，A.F.(2005).The effect of peer collaboration on children’s problem-solving ability.British Journal of Educational Psychology，75(2)，157-169.

Garton，A.F.& Pratt，C.(2001).Peer assistance in children's problem solving.British Journal of Developmental Psychology，19(2)，307-318.

Gick，M.L.& Holyoak，K.J.(1983).Schema induction and analogical transfer.Cognitive psychology，15(1)，1-38.

Golbeck，S.L.& El-Moslimany，H.(2013).Developmental approaches to collaborative learning: Toward collaborative knowledge creation.In C.E.Hmelo-Silver，C.A.Chinn，C.Chan，& A.M.O'Donnell (Eds.)，The international handbook of collaborative learning (pp.41-56).New York，NY: Routledge.

Goldenberg，C.(1992).Instructional conversations: Promoting comprehension through discussion.The Reading Teacher，46(4)，316-326.

Greeno，J.G.(1989).A perspective on thinking.American Psychologist，44(2)，134.

Jadallah，M.，Miller，B.，Anderson，R.C.，Nguyen-Jahiel，K.，Archodidou，A.，Zhang，J.& Grabow，K.(2009).Collaborative Reasoning about a science and public policy issue.In Margaret McKeown and Linda Kucan (Eds.) Bringing reading research to life: Essays in honor of Isabel L.Beck.New York : Guilford Press.(pp.170-193)

Hattie，J.(2009).Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement.London and New York: Routledge.

Herbig，P.A.& Kramer，H.(1994).The effect of information overload on the innovation choice process: Innovation overload.Journal of Consumer Marketing，11(2)，45-54.

Herrington，J.& Oliver，R.(1999).Using situated learning and multimedia to investigate higher-order thinking.Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia，8(4)，401-422.

Hmelo-Silver，C.E.& DeSimone，C.(2013).Problem-based learning: An instructional model of collaborative learning.In C.E.Hmelo-Silver，C.A.Chinn，C.Chan，& A.M.O'Donnell (Eds.)，The international handbook of collaborative learning (pp.370- 385).New York，NY: Routledge.

Holyoak，K.J.(2012).Analogy and relational reasoning.The Oxford handbook of thinking and reasoning，234-259.

Kapur，M.& Kinzer，C.K.(2007).Examining the effect of problem type in a synchronous computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) environment.Educational Technology Research and Development，55(5)，439-459.

Kim，I.H.，Anderson，R.C.，Miller，B.，Jeong，J.& Swim，T.(2011).Influence of cultural norms and collaborative discussions on children’s reflective essays.Discourse Processes，48(7)，501-528.

Lewis，A.& Smith，D.(1993).Defining higher order thinking.Theory into practice，32(3)，131-137.

Lin，T.-J.，Anderson，R.C.，Hummel，J.E.，Jadallah，M.，Miller，B.W.，Nguyen-Jahiel，K.，… Dong，T.(2012).Children’s use of analogy during Collaborative Reasoning.Child Development，83，1429-1443.

Lin，T.-J.，Ma，S.，Zhang，J.，Nguyen-Jahiel，K.，Anderson，R.C.，Morris，J.A.，…Jadallah，M.(April，2011).Nurturing conceptual understanding and systems thinking.Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association，New Orleans，LA.

Ma，S.& Anderson，R.C.(2014，August).Tracking Multilink Reasoning in a Knowledge Transfer Task.Paper presented at the 24nd annual meeting of the Society for Text and Discourse，Chicago，Illinois.

Ma，S.，Anderson，R.C.，Lin，T.-J.，Zhang，J.，Morris，J.A.，Nguyen-Jahiel，K.，…Latawiec，B.(2014).Influence of collaborative group work on English language learners’ oral narratives.Manuscript submitted for review.

Ma，S.，Lin，T.J.& Anderson，R.C.(2013，July).Nurturing English language learners’ multi-link causal reasoning.Paper presented at the 20th annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading，Hong Kong，China.

Mercer，N.(1994).The quality of talk in children’s joint activity at the computer.Journal of Computer Assisted Learning，10，24-32.

Mercer，N.(1995).The guided construction of knowledge.Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Mercer，N.(2013).The social brain，language，and goal-directed collective thinking: A social conception of cognition and its implications for understanding how we think，teach，and learn.Educational Psychologist，48(3)，148-168.

Mercer，N.& Hodgkinson，S.(Eds.).(2008).Exploring talk in school.London，England: Sage.

Mercer，N.，Wegerif，R.& Dawes，L.(1999).Children’s talk and the development of reasoning in the classroom.British educational research journal，25(1)，95-111.

Morris，J.，Anderson，R.C.，and the Collaborative Reasoning Research Group.(2012).The other side: Children’s spontaneous generation of counterarguments.Champaign，IL: Center for the Study of Reading.

Morris，J.，Anderson，R.C.，and the Collaborative Reasoning Research Group(2013).Instructional discourse and argumentative writing.Champaign，IL: Center for the Study of Reading.

Newman，F.M.(1990).Higher order thinking in teaching social studies: A rationale for the assessment of classroom thoughtfulness.Journal of Curriculum Studies，22(1)，41-56.

Pellegrino，J.W.& Hilton，M.L.(Eds.).(2013).Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century.National Academies Press.

Piaget，J.(1952).The origins of intelligence in children.New York: International Universities Press.

Raiffa，H.(1968).Decision analysis: Introductory lectures on choices under uncertainty.Reading，MA: Addison-Wesley.

Resnick，L.(1987).Education and learning to think.Washington，DC: National Academy Press.

Reznitskaya，A.，Anderson，R.C.，McNurlen，B.，Nguyen-Jahiel，K.，Archodidou，A.& Kim，S.Y.(2001).Influence of oral discussion on written argument.Discourse processes，32(2-3)，155-175.

Reznitskaya，A.，Kuo，L.-J.，Clark，A.-M.，Miller，B.W.，Jadallah，M.，Anderson，R.C.& Nguyen-Jahiel，K.(2009).Collaborative Reasoning: A dialogic approach to group discussion.Cambridge Journal of Education，39，29-48.

Reznitskaya，A.，Anderson，R.C.& Kuo，L.J.(2007).Teaching and learning argumentation.The Elementary School Journal，107(5)，449-472.

Rogoff，B.(1993).Children’s guided participation and participatory appropriation in sociocultural activity.Development in context: Acting and thinking in specific environments，121-153.

Rogoff，B.(2008).Observing sociocultural activity on three planes: Participatory appropriation，guided participation，and apprenticeship.Pedagogy and practice: Culture and identities，58-74.

Rosenblatt，L.M.(1989).Writing and reading: The transactional theory.In J.Mason(Ed.)，Reading and writing connections (pp.153-176).Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Saunders，W.M.& Goldenberg，C.(2007).The effect of an instructional conversation on English language learners' concepts of friendship and story comprehension.Talking texts: How speech and writing interact in school learning，221-252.

Sicilia，M.& Ruiz，S.(2010).The effects of the amount of information on cognitive responses in online purchasing tasks.Electronic Commerce Research and Applications，9(2)，183-191.

Snowman，J.& McCown，R.(2011).Approaches to instruction.Psychology applied to teaching (pp.439-481).Cengage Learning.

Stigler，J.W.& Hiebert，J.(1999).The teaching gap: Best ideas from the world’s teachers for improving education in the classroom.New York: Free Press.

Sun，J.，Anderson，R.C.，Perry，M.& Lin，T.-J.(2014).Transfer of emergent leadership from collaborative reasoning to cooperative problem solving.Manuscript submitted for review.

Sun，J.，Anderson，R.C.，Lin，T.-J.& Morris，J.A.(in press).Social and cognitive development during collaborative reasoning.In L.B.Resnick，C.Asterhan，& S.N.Clarke (Eds.)，Socializing intelligence through talk and dialogue.Washington，DC: American Educational Research Association.

Tharp，R.& Gallimore，R.(1989).Rousing minds to life.New York: Cambridge University Press.

Tschannen-Moran，M.& Hoy，A.W.(2007).The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers.Teaching and teacher Education，23(6)，944-956.

Vass，E.，Littleton，K.，Miell，D.& Jones，A.(2008).The discourse of collaborative creative writing: Peer collaboration as a context for mutual inspiration.Thinking Skills and Creativity，3(3)，192-202.

Von Winterfeldt，D.，& Edwards，W.(1986).Decision analysis and behavioral research (Vol.1).Cambridge，England: Cambridge University Press.

Vygotsky，L.S.(1978).Mind in society.Cambridge，MA: Harvard.

Vygotsky，L.S.(1981).The genesis of higher mental functions.The concept of activity in Soviet psychology，144-188.

Waggoner，M.，Chinn，C.，Yi，H.& Anderson，R.C.(1995).Collaborative reasoning about stories.Language Arts，582-589.

Walton，D.N.(1996).Argumentation schemes for presumptive reasoning.Mahwah，NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Weinstein，C.S.(1998).“I want to be nice，but i have to be mean”: Exploring prospective teachers’ conceptions of caring and order.Teaching and Teacher Education，14(2)，153-163.

Wells，G.& Arauz，R.M.(2006).Dialogue in the classroom.The journal of the learning sciences，15(3)，379-428.

Zhang，J.，Anderson，R.C.& Nguyen-Jahiel，K.(2013).Language-rich discussions for English language learners.International Journal of Educational Research，58，44-60.

Zhang，X.，Anderson，R.C.，Morris，J.，Miller，B.，Nguyen-Jahiel，Kim.，Lin，T.J.，… Cui，E.，(under review).Improving children’s competence as decision makers.

[1] 伊利诺伊大学香槟分校（University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign）

[2] 伊利诺伊大学香槟分校（University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign）

[3] 伊利诺伊大学香槟分校（University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign）

[4] 伊利诺伊大学香槟分校（University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign）