汉语阅读障碍研究

作为非拼音文字，汉语并不存在系统而明确的形—音转换规则，因此，与正字法深度最大的拼音文字（英语）相比，更加不透明。汉语儿童需要经过长达3年左右的正规教学，习得3000个左右的常用汉字，才能熟练阅读报纸，其阅读习得年龄远远晚于拼音文字环境中的同龄人。

由于汉字的形态特点和表音、表意方式都与拼音文字存在着巨大区别，研究者曾一度认为汉语中不存在发展性阅读障碍问题。直到1982年，一项跨文化测验结果显示，汉语儿童中阅读障碍的发生率并不低于英语儿童（Stevenson，Stigler & Lucker，1982）。阅读障碍在汉语学习者中的检出率为5%~10%。

早期的汉语发展性阅读障碍研究主要参考的是拼音文字体系的研究范式，因此，语音加工技能受到了众多研究者的高度重视。基于语音缺陷假说，针对汉语阅读障碍儿童的研究也显示，汉语阅读障碍儿童往往也存在语音意识、语音记忆和语音提取方面的缺陷（Chan & Siegel，2001；Ho，Chan，Tsang & Lee，2002；Ho，Chan，Lee，Tsang & Luan，2004）。这些儿童在首音位删除、声音分类和声调辨别任务中的成绩显著落后于同龄人（Huang & Zhang，1997），语音表征能力存在缺陷（徐世勇，彭聃龄，薛贵，谭力海，2001）。个案研究也显示，发展性阅读障碍儿童存在着语音技能缺陷，音位、声调意识差，语言短时记忆能力弱的情况（Shu，Meng，Chen，Luan & Cao，2005；栾辉，舒华，黎程正家，林薇，2002）。

除了语音意识和语音短时记忆能力之外，研究者还发现了汉语阅读障碍儿童存在连续快速命名的能力缺陷（Ho & Lai，1999；Ho，Chan，Tsang & Lee，2002；McBride-Chang & Ho，2000；Ho，Chan，Lee，Tsang & Luan，2004），这与拼音文字体系中的研究结果很一致，反映了语言技能的发展具有一定的普遍性。

近年来，随着研究的深入，越来越多的研究显示，在控制了其他影响阅读能力发展的因素之后，语素意识仍然对于汉字识别有显著的贡献（Wai，Fletcher，2001；McBride-Chang，Shu，Zhou，Wat & Wagner，2003；McBride-Chang et al.，2005）。对于高年级的小学生而言，虽然语音意识和语素意识都能预测儿童的阅读成绩，但是语素意识对阅读的重要性要大于语音意识（Shu & Anderson，1998）。语素意识是预测汉语儿童阅读能力的最重要指标，是区分阅读障碍儿童与正常儿童的最重要预测变量，而语素缺陷是汉语阅读障碍儿童最普遍存在的核心缺陷，并且，这一缺陷很可能是汉语儿童阅读困难的最主要原因（吴思娜，2004；吴思娜，舒华，王彧，2004；吴思娜，舒华，刘艳茹，2005；Shu，McBride-Chang，Wu & Liu，2006；Li，Shu，McBride-Chang，Liu & Xue，2009），表现出汉语的特殊性。

目前绝大多数追踪研究的结论都是基于拼音文字研究，发现语音技能在阅读发展和阅读障碍中的重要预测作用。但现在已经有越来越多的证据显示，语言文字的特点会对儿童的语言和阅读习得过程产生重要影响，因此基于英语研究得到的结论，并不能直接推广到其他文字中，尤其是非拼音文字系统——汉语。汉语阅读发展项目（Chinese reading development project，简称CRD项目）致力于通过对北京地区具有代表性的大样本儿童进行长期追踪，探索汉语儿童阅读发展规律的普遍性和特殊性问题，并为今后的教育实践提供重要的启示。

汉语阅读发展追踪研究

汉语阅读发展项目开始于2000年，通过妇幼保健院的招募，有338个新生儿家庭参与了在北京开展的中国儿童语言调查（Chinese Communicative Development Inventory，简称CCDI）。所有儿童均为智力正常（经过瑞文标准推理测验测评）、年龄相差在一岁之内的同龄儿童，他们的母语为汉语普通话，无视听障碍及器质性脑损伤，能够代表中国北京地区的普通儿童群体（Tardif，Fletcher，Zhang，Liang，Zuo & Chen，2008）。

从2001年开始，每年暑假都会有两位受过专业训练的研究生到儿童家中进行一对一的测查。得益于多年来家长和儿童的配合，直至2013年，该研究项目组仍然与293名儿童保持着密切的联系。基于持续多年的追踪，我们积累了丰富的儿童语言及阅读发展的纵向数据，从代表综合阅读和语言能力的汉字识别与词汇定义任务，到相对底层的认知加工技能任务，如音位删除任务、语素产生任务和快速命名任务；从家庭背景信息，包括父母受教育水平问卷（出生施测）、亲子互动水平问卷（3岁施测）以及父母阅读习惯问卷（3岁施测），到先进的神经成像技术，均获得了一系列有意义的发现，这对我们深入理解汉语儿童的阅读发展轨迹以及预测汉语阅读障碍提供了有力的科学依据。

阅读相关认知能力的发展轨迹研究

阅读困难的早期预测一直是研究者和教育者共同关注的热点话题之一，准确的早期预测可以帮助家长和老师在关键期对儿童实施有效的科学干预。研究者选取同一年进入小学的追踪项目儿童共261名，对这些儿童在学前期3～6岁测得的七项语言相关认知技能（语素识别、接受性语法、非词重复、音节删除、语素建构、快速命名、词汇定义）以及8岁测得的阅读技能进行了建模分析（Lei et al.，2011）。结果发现了四条不同的阅读发展轨迹：

正常组（所有认知技能和阅读能力发展都正常）；

赶上组（认知技能起初落后，但最后恢复正常）；

部分认知缺陷组（语音意识、语素意识和快速命名成绩落后）；

多重认知缺陷组（语言意识、语素意识、快速命名和词汇定义成绩落后）。

其中，正常组和赶上组的儿童在8岁时（小学二年级时结束）均具备了一定的阅读能力，但是部分认知缺陷组和多认知缺陷组的儿童在阅读准确性和流畅性上均存在明显落后。这两组儿童存在成为阅读障碍的高风险，其中语音意识、语素意识和快速命名任务在预测儿童是否属于高风险组方面有着重要的作用。其中，语音意识和快速命名的发现与拼音文字的研究发现一致，反映了阅读发展规律的跨语言普遍性，而语素意识的发现则体现了汉语的独特性。

通过对四组不同发展轨迹儿童的细致刻画，我们得到了汉语儿童阅读障碍的三个重要的早期预测因素（语音意识、语素意识和快速命名）。这三个任务除了快速命名任务需要孩子认识几个阿拉伯数字之外，不要求儿童具备任何的书面语言阅读能力或者接触经验，因此很容易在学前儿童中施测，这对尽早发现存在阅读障碍风险的高危儿童并进行有效的早期干预，具有重要意义。

儿童口语词汇发展轨迹研究

词汇发展是儿童语言发展的重要指标，在长期的追踪项目中，研究者选取了一项由儿童主动产出的词汇定义任务。例如，

“请问‘厨房’是什么意思？”

正确答案：“做饭的地方”。

对儿童从学前到小学后期长达7年的词汇发展进行了跟踪测查（Song et al.，2015）。结果发现了三条不同的词汇发展轨迹：高起点—高速度组、低起点—高速度组以及低起点—低速度组。其中高起点—高速度组儿童的母亲平均受教育水平最高，儿童在各项认知技能上均优于其他两组，表现出明显的优势；低起点—高速度组在学前阶段与低起点—低速度组的词汇发展状况相似，但从7岁开始，低起点—高速度组加速发展并逐步达到与高起点—高速度组相同的水平。那么，究竟是什么因素帮助这些低起点的儿童加速发展的呢？

研究者深入分析了与语言和阅读发展密切相关的各种认知技能，结果发现，这些儿童在进入小学之后的语音和语素技能都有明显提高，很可能正是学校教育弥补了这些孩子学前教育经历的不足，促进了儿童阅读相关认知技能的迅猛发展，帮助这些儿童赶上了具有学前优势的同龄儿童，这说明了学校教育对儿童语言发展，尤其是家庭环境欠佳儿童的语言发展有着重要的补偿作用。

家庭环境对阅读发展的重要作用

儿童早期的认知技能发展水平是预测阅读障碍风险的重要指标，与此同时，家庭环境的作用也不容忽视。来自拼音文字的大量研究发现，家庭社会经济地位（Socioeconomic status，简称SES）能够显著预测儿童的阅读和语言发展（Hoff，2003；Rowe & Goldin-Meadow，2009；Rowe，Raudenbush & Goldin-Meadow，2012）。为了探明汉语环境中家庭环境对儿童阅读技能的影响，研究者选取了262名具有完整家庭环境数据的同龄儿童，以家长问卷的形式对他们的家庭社会经济地位进行了测查，同时考察了这些儿童学前的语音加工技能、词汇加工技能以及三年级的阅读能力。结果发现，家庭社会经济地位能够显著预测儿童在三年级的阅读能力，而加入学前的语音和词汇技能后，研究者发现家庭环境因素是通过对这两项认知技能的影响进而影响后期的阅读发展（Zhang et al.，2013）。

有趣的是，前面两项关注儿童阅读相关认知技能发展和词汇量发展轨迹的研究发现，处于优势组的儿童均来自有良好家庭环境背景的家庭（Lei et al.，2010；Song et al.，2015），这可能意味着家庭环境外部因素与早期认知能力内部因素同样重要，都是预测儿童后期阅读发展和阅读障碍风险的重要指标，但这一结论需要今后更多的相关研究加以证实。

总体而言，基于汉语阅读发展项目，我们对汉语儿童的阅读发展和阅读障碍有了更为深入的了解。通过对早期阅读轨迹的详细刻画，我们发现了预测阅读障碍风险的三个早期指标：语音意识、语素意识以及快速命名（Lei et al.，2010）。通过对口语词汇发展的细致追踪，我们揭示了入学之后认知技能的发展对儿童学龄期语言发展的重要补偿作用（Song et al.，2015）。最后，我们还发现早期家庭环境对儿童的阅读发展起着不可替代的重要作用 （Zhang et al.，2013），这对今后的理论研究和教育实践都有着重要启示。

相对而言，汉语阅读障碍的研究历史还非常短暂，研究数量也比较有限。目前的研究主要集中于描述、解释、预测层面，远远没有达到干预水平。但是有了追踪研究对儿童发展规律的揭示，可以使阅读障碍的早期鉴别和早期干预成为可能，从而取得事半功倍的效果。

摘要Abstract

In the chapter, we first outlined typical acquisition of reading in the alphabetic language when contrasting the transparent Finnish and non-transparent English languages.Then the focus turned towards an examination of those contexts where reading acquisition does not progress in the expected way.The reasons have been discussed the why a child may develop with dyslexia, the distal factors, the focus then shifts towards identification of the proximal factors, the manifestation of dyslexia on the developmental process.The GraphoGame, which could provide preventive training of the first steps of reading skill, was described next.At the end, the Chinese dyslexia and the main results of Chinese longitudinal study were discussed.

key words

Longitudinal study, dyslexia, Trajectories of reading development, Finland, Chinese

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[1] （芬兰）于韦斯屈莱大学（University of Jyv?skyl?, Finland）

[2] （芬兰）于韦斯屈莱大学（University of Jyv?skyl?, Finland）

[3] （中国）北京师范大学（Beijing Normal University, China）

[4] （中国）北京师范大学（Beijing Normal University, China）

[5] （中国）北京师范大学（Beijing Normal University, China）

[6] 详细情况可登录www.lukimat.fi查询。

[7] 详见http://grapholearning.info/graphoworld.