本章的主要目的是，解释双语发展中第一语言已有的元语言意识是如何对不同类型的语言起促进作用的。我们提出了两个问题：已习得的各种语言能力是如何在另一种语言的学习过程中被同化和吸收的？被同化、吸收的这些语言能力，是如何推动另一种语言阅读能力发展的？经过对语言要求的一系列分析，我们预测，第一语言元语言意识对不同第二语言的跨语言促进作用存在差异，并通过一系列双语学龄儿童实验进行了检验。
有关语音意识的实验比较了第一语言语音意识对第二语言解码能力的影响，实验分别研究了在美国学习传统中文的儿童（CHL）和在印度学习英语的多语学生（EFL）。CHL实验表明，表音文字（L1，英语）的语音意识对表音拼音文字（L2）的解码能力，对形态音节汉字（L2）的解码能力有不同的作用。同样的，印度EFL实验显示，表音音节文字（L1，卡纳达语）语音意识的跨语言促进作用，只限于表音文字（L2，英语）中与其相似方面的解码能力。追踪研究发现，第一语言语音意识和解码能力推动了第二语言相应语言能力的发展，对于第二语言阅读理解能力的发展，这种跨语言影响是通过第二语言的相关技能和语言知识间接实现的。
最后一个实验比较了复合语素意识和衍生语素意识——两种中文（L1）语素意识——对英语（L2）词法推断能力的相对影响。与预测一致，与衍生语素意识相比（英语的衍生能力较强），中文的复合语素意识对第二语言词义推断能力的影响要大得多（中文和英语的复合能力都很强）。
总之，上述四个实验有力地证明了，跨语言促进作用在双语发展中存在系统性差异。总的说来，作用的程度取决于双语学习涉及的两种语言和书写体系对语言要求的相似程度。总而言之，第二语言的相关阅读能力是在该语言特性和先前习得的第一语言阅读相关能力相互作用下形成的。
摘要Abstract
In the recent years, metalinguistic awareness has attracted serious research attention in reading research.The utility of this ability lies in its capacity for enabling children to analyze a word into its sub-lexical (phonological and morphological) constituents.In the initial stages of learning to read, word segmentation is a critical competence that helps children learn the specific patterns of the grapheme-to-language mappings that are optimal in their language. In later stages of reading development, metalinguistic awareness plays a different, but equally vital, role. The analytical capacity allows children to identify familiar sub-lexical elements in an unfamiliar word, and in so doing, makes it possible to extract partial information from the word.Studies involving bilingual readers have consistently demonstrated that once developed in one language, metalinguistic awareness transfers to another language, and promotes as a foundational competence, though in varying degrees, in reading development in another language.
The primary objectives of this chapter are two fold: (1) clarifying the role of metalinguistic awareness as a cross-linguistically sharable competence in biliteracy development, and(2) examining systematic variations in the facilitation benefit brought on by previously acquired metalinguistic awareness in second language reading development.The chapter provides a brief overview of the universal and language-specific constraints on reading acquisition and the role of metalinguistic awareness in conjunction with those constraints.It then discusses how first language metalinguistic awareness contributes to reading subskills development in a second or later acquired language.
key words
metalinguistic awareness
参考文献Reference
Abu Rabia, S.(1995) Learning to read in Arabic: Reading, syntactic, orthographic and working memory skills in normally achieving and poor Arabic readers.Reading Psychology, 16, 351-394.
August, D., Calderon, M., & Carlo, M.(2000). Transfer of skills from Spanish to English: A study of young learners. Report for practitioners, parents, and policy makers.(ED-98-CO-0071).
August, D., Calderon, M., & Carlo, M.(2001).Transfer of skills from Spanish to English: A study of young learners.Updated review of current literature relevant to the technical issues in the implementation of the study.
Bear, D.R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F.(1996).Words their way: Word study for phonics vocabulary, and spelling instruction.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Berko, J.(1958).The child’s learning of English morphology.Word, 14, 150-177.
Bialystok, E., McBride-Chang, C., &Luk, G.(2005).Bilingualism, language proficiency, and learning to read in two writing systems.Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 580-590.
Bowey, J.A.& Francis, J.(1991). Phonological analysis as a function of age and exposure to reading instruction.Applied Psycholinguistics, 12, 91-121.
Branum-Martin, L., Fletcher, J.M., Carlson, C.D., Ortiz, A., Carlo, M., & Francis, D.J.(2006). Bilingual phonological awareness: Multilevel construct validation among Spanish-speaking kindergarteners in transitional bilingual education classrooms.Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 170-81.
Carlisle, J.(1995). Morphological awareness and early reading achievement. In L.Feldman (Ed.), Morphological aspects of language processing (pp.189-209).Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Carlisle, J.F.(2003). Morphology matters in learning to read: A commentary.Reading Psychology, 24, 291-322.
Carlisle, J.F., &Beeman, M.M.(2000).The effects of language of instruction on the reading and writing achievement of first-grade Hispanic children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 4, 331-353.
Carlisle, J.F., & Katz, L.A.(2006).Effects of word and morpheme familiarity on reading of derived words.Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 19, 669-693.
Carlisle, J.F., &Nomanbhoy, D.(1993).Phonological and morphological development. Applied Psycholinguistics, 14, 177-195.
Chen, X., Ramirez, G., Luo, Y.C., Geva, E., & Ku, Y.-M.(2012).Comparing vocabulary development in Spanish-and Chinese-speaking ELLs: the effects of metalinguistic and sociocultural factors.Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 25, 1991-2020.
Cheung, H., Chung, K.K., H., Wong, S.W.L., McBride-Chang, C., Penney, T.B., & Ho, C.S.-H.(2010).Speech perception, metalinguistic awareness, reading, and vocabulary in Chinese-English bilingual children.Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 367-380.
Cormier, P.&Kelson, S.(2000) The roles of phonological and syntactic awareness in the use of plural morphemes among children in French immersion.Scientific Studies of Reading, 4, 267-294.
Coulmas, F.(1989).The writing systems of the world.Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell.
Da Fontoura, H.A., & Siegel, L.S.(1995).Reading syntactic and memory skills of Portuguese-English Canadian children. Reading and Writing: An International Journal, 7, 139-153.
Durgunoglu, A.Y., Nagy, W.E., &Hancin, B.J.(1993).Cross-language transfer of phonemic awareness.Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 453-465.
Ellis, N.(2002).Frequency effects in language processing: A review with implications for theories of implicit and explicit language acquisition.Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 143-188.
Fowler, A.E., &Liberman, I.Y.(1995).The role of phonology and orthography in morphological awareness. In L.B.Feldman (Ed.), Morphological aspects of language processing (pp.157-188).Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Geva, E., & Wang, M.(2001).The development of basic reading skills in children: A cross-language perspective.Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 182-204.
Jeon, E.H.(2011).Contribution of morphological awareness to K2 reading comprehension.Modern Language Journal, 95, 217-235.
Kieffer, M.J., &Lesaux, N.K.(2012).Development of morphological awareness and vocabulary knowledge in Spanish-speaking language minority learners: A parallel process latent growth curve model.Applied Psycholinguistics, 33, 23-54.
Koda, K.(2007).Reading and language learning: Cross-linguistic constraints on second-language reading development.Language Learning, 57, 1-44.
Koda, K., Lü, C., & Zhang, Y.(2008).Properties of characters in heritage Chinese textbooks and their implications for character knowledge development among Chinese Heritage Language learners. In A.W.He & Y.Xiao (Eds.), Chinese as a heritage language: Fostering rooted world citizenry (pp.125-135).Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Ku, Y.-M., & Anderson, R.C.(2003).Development of morphological awareness in Chinese and English.Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 16, 399-422.
Kuo, L.J., & Anderson, R.C.(2008).Conceptual and methodological issues in comparing metalinguistic awareness across languages.In K.Koda & A.M.Zehler(Eds.), Learning to read across languages: Cross-linguistic relationships in first and second-language literacy development (pp.39-67).New York: Routledge.
Lam, K., Chen, X., Geva, E., Luo, Y.C., & Li, H.(2012).The role of morphological awareness in reading achievement among young Chinese-speaking English language learners: a longitudinal study.Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 25, 1847-1872.
Li.C., & Thompson, S.(1981).Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Li, W., Anderson, R.C., Nagy, W., & Zhang, H.(2002).Facets of metalinguistic awareness that contribute to Chinese literacy.In W.Li, J.S.Gaffiney, & J.L.Packard (Eds.), Chinese children’s reading acquisition: Theoretical and pedagogical issues (pp.87-106).Boston: Kluwer Academic.
Logan, G.D.(1988).Toward an instance theory of automatization.Psychological Review, 95, 492-527.
MacWhinney, B.& Bates, E.(Eds.).(1989).Thecrosslinguistic study of sentence processing.New York: Cambridge University Press.
Marcolini, S., Traficante, D., Zoccolotti, P., &Burani, C.(2011).Word frequency modulates morpheme-based reading in poor and skilled Italian readers.Applied Psycholinguistics, 32, 513-532.
McBride-Chang, C., Wagner, R, K., Muse, A., Chow, B.W.-Y., & Shu, H.(2005).The role of morphological awareness in children’s vocabulary acquisition in English.Applied Psycholinguistics, 26, 415-435.
McBride-Chang, C., Cho.J.-R., Liu, H., Wagner, R.K., Shu, H., Zhou, A., Cheuk, C.S-M., & Muse, A.(2005).Changing models across cultures: Associations of phonological awareness and morphological structure awareness with vocabulary and word recognition in second graders.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 92, 140-160.
Melby-Lervag, M., &Lervag, A.(2011). Cross-linguistic transfer of oral language, decoding, phonological awareness and reading comprehension: a meta-analysis of the correlational evidence.Journal of Research in Reading, 34, 114–135.
Nagy, W.E., & Anderson, R.C.(1999).Metalinguistic awareness and literacy acquisition in different languages. In D.Wagner, R.Venezky, & B.Street (Eds.), Literacy: An international handbook (pp.155-160).New York: Garland.
Nagy, W., Kuo-Kealoha, A., Wu, X., Li, W., Anderson, R.C., & Chen, X.(2002).The role of morphological awareness in learning to read Chinese.In W.Li, J.S.Gaffney, & J.L.Packard (Eds.), Chinese children’s reading acquisition: Theoretical and pedagogical issues (pp.59-86).Boston: Kluwer Academic.
Nakamura, P., Koda, K.Joshi, M.(2014). Biliteracy Acquisition in Kannada and English: A developmental Study.Writing System Research, 6, 132-147.
Packard, J.L.(2000).The morphology of Chinese: A linguistic and cognitive approach.New York: Cambridge University Press.
Park, E.C.(2008).Literacy experience in Korean: Implications for learning to read in a second language.In K.Koda& A.M.Zehler (Eds.), Learning to read across languages: Cross-linguistic relationships in firs-t and second-language literacy development (pp.201-221).New York: Routledge.
Pasquarella, A., Chen, C., Lam, K., & Luo, Y.C.(2011).Cross-language transfer of morphological awareness in Chinese-English bilinguals.Journal of Research in Reading, 34, 23-42.
Perfetti, C.A.(2003).The universal grammar of reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7, 3-24.
Perfetti, C.A., Beck, I., Bell, L.C., & Hughes, C.(1987).Phonemic knowledge and learning to read are reciprocal: A longitudinal study of first grade children.Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 283-319.
Perfetti, C.A., & Dunlap, S.(2008).Learning to read: General principles and writing system variations.In K.Koda& A.M.Zehler (Eds.), Learning to read across languages: Cross-linguistic relationships in firs-t and second-language literacy development (pp.13-38).New York: Routledge.
Plag, I.(2003).Word-formation in English.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ramirez, G., Chen, X., Geva, E., & Kiefer, H.(2010).Morphological awareness in Spanish-speaking English language learners: Within and cross-language effects on word reading.Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 23, 337-358.
Taylor, I., & Taylor, M.M.(1995).Writing and literacy in Chinese, Korean, and Japanese. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins.
Tyler, A., & Nagy, W.(1989).The acquisition of English derivational morphology.Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 649-667.
Tyler, A., & Nagy, W.(1990).Use of derivational morphology during reading.Cognition, 36, 17-34.
Verhoeven, L.(2000).Components in early second language reading and spelling.Scientific Studies of Reading, 4, 313-330.
Verhoeven, L., &Schreuder, R.(2011).Morpheme frequency effects in Dutch complex word reading: A developmentalperspective.Applied Psycholinguistics, 32, 483-498.
Van Valin, R.D.(1991). Functionalist linguistic theory and language acquisition.First Language, 11, 7-40.
Vellutino, F.R., & Scanlon, D.M.(1987).Phonological coding, phonological awareness, and reading ability: Evidence from a longitudinal and experimental study.Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 321-363.
Wade-Woolley, L., &Geva, E.(2000) Processing novel phonemic contrasts in the acquisition of L2 word reading.Scientific Studies of Reading 4, 295-311.
Wang, M., Cheng, C., & Chen, S.-W.(2006).Contribution of morphological awareness to Chinese-English biliteracy acquisition.Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 542-553.
Wang, M., Ko, I.Y., & Choi, J.(2009).The importance of morphological awareness in Korean-English biliteracy acquisition.Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34, 132-142
Wang, M., Perfetti , C.A., & Liu, Y.(2005).Chinese-English biliteracy acquisition: Cross language and writing system transfer.Cognition, 97, 67-88.
Wang, M., Yang, C., & Cheng, C.(2009).The contributions of phonology, orthography, and morphology in Chinese-English biliteracy acquisition.Applied Psycholinguistics, 30, 291-314.
Zhang, D.(2010).Print experiences, transfer of L1 morphological awareness and development of L2 lexical inference ability in young EFL readers.Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation.Carnegie Mellon University.
Zhang, D.(2014).Linguistic distance effect on cross-linguistic transfer of morphological awareness.Applied Psycholinguistics, .
Zhang, D.&Koda, K.(2012).Morphological awareness, lexical inferencing vocabulary knowledge and L2 reading comprehension: Testing direct and indirect effects.Reading and Writing, 25, 1195-1216.
Zhang, D., &Koda, K.(2013).Morphological awareness and reading comprehension in a foreign language: A study of young Chinese EFL learners.System, 41, 901-931.
Ziegler, J.C., &Goswami, U.(2005).Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory.Psychological Bulletin, 131, 3-29.
Ziegler, J.C., &Goswami, U.(2006).Becoming literate in different languages: Similar problems, different solutions.Developmental Sciences, 9, 425-436.
[1] 美国卡耐基梅隆大学现代语言系（Carnegie Mellon University）
[2] 以西班牙语为母语，以英语为第二语言。