总结而言，华人社会中文学习环境存在一系列的差异，包括汉字系统、教学方法，以及方言和外语的学习和使用。事实上，由于学习环境的复杂多样性，以及上述变量间的互相影响，很难将单个具体因素独立出来，放到跨文化背景下进行比较。在文献回顾中我们发现，这方面的跨文化研究数量极其有限，所以我们更多通过解读单一文化背景下的研究，来理解这些环境变量与中文读写能力（主要是词汇识别和拼写）之间的交互作用。本章对于家长和教育工作者具有一定的实践指导意义，帮助他们反观自己使用的教学策略，深入理解读写能力发展水平是由个体内部特征与外界教育条件等各方因素综合决定的。

摘要Abstract

Children’s literacy development is not only determined by their personal characteristics, but influenced by a set of environmental factors.In this chapter, important environment discrepancies across several Chinese societies are first summarized.How these discrepancies affect children’s Chinese literacy acquisition and development are then addressed, from the following aspects: 1)How does the adoption of different scripts (simplified Chinese VS traditional Chinese) impact children’s word recognition and visual skills? 2)How do differences in various aspects in educational approaches, including teaching strategies, age of formal education, affect children’s Chinese literacy acquisition across Chinese societies? 3) What is the influence of dialects (e.g.Cantonese) and the second language (i.e.English) acquisition on children’s reading and writing development? In sum, environmental discrepancies should always be taken into account as they impose variant impacts on literacy development.

Key words

Chinese learning, Literacy development, environment discrepancies, scripts, teaching methods

参考文献Reference

Zhang J., Mcbride-Chang, (2011).C.Diversity in Chinese literacy acquisition [J].Writing System Research, 3, 87-102.

Gao, G., Kao, H.S.(2002).Psycho-geometric analysis of commonly used Chinese characters [M]// Kao H.S.R., Leong C.-K., Gao, D.-G.Cognitive neuroscience studies of the Chinese language.Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 195-206.

Chung F.H.K., Leung M.T.(2008).Data analysis of Chinese characters in primary school corpora of Hong Kong and mainland China: Preliminary theoreticalinterpretations [J].Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 22(4-5): 379-389.

Cheung H., NG.L.(2003).Chinese reading development in some major Chinese societies: An introduction [M] //MCBRIDE-CHANG C, CHEN H C.Reading development in Chinese children.United States of America: Praeger Publishers, 3-17.

Holm A., Dodd B.(1996).The effect of first written language on the acquisition of English literacy [J].Cognition, 59(2): 119-147.

Lin D., Mcbride-Chang C., Aram D, Levin I, Cheung Y.M., Chow Yy, Tolchinsky L.(2009).Maternal mediation of writing in Chinese children [J].Language and Cognitive Processes, 24:1286-1311.

Li H., Rao N.(2000).Parental influences on Chinese literacy development: A comparison of preschoolers in Beijing, Hong Kong, and Singapore [J].International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24(1): 82-90.

Li H., Rao N.(2005).Curricular and instructional influences on early literacy attainment: Evidence from Beijing, Hong Kong and Singapore [J].International Journal of Early Years Education, 13(3): 235-253.

Cheng L., Li M., Kirby J.R., Qiang H., Wade-Woolley L.(2010).English language immersion and students’ academic achievement in English, Chinese and mathematics [J].Evaluation & Research in Education, 23(3): 151-169.

Knell E., Qiang H., Pei M., Chiy, Siegel L.S., Zhao L., Zhao W.(2007).Early English immersion and literacy in Xi’an, China [J].The Modern Language Journal, 91(3): 395-417.

Hoosain R.(1991).Psycholinguistic implications for linguistic relativity: A case study of Chinese[M].Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.

Ho C.S.-H., Bryant P.(1997).Phonological skills are important in learning toread Chinese[J].Developmental Psychology, 33: 946-951.

Siok W.T., Fletcher P.(2001).The role of phonological awareness and visual-orthographic skills in Chinese reading [J].Developmental Psychology, 37(6): 886-899.

Kummer R.Chinese language [EB/OL].[2002-12-09].http://lobota.tripod.com/ language.html.

Mcbride-Chang C., Chow B.W., Zhong Y., Burgess S., Hayward W.G.(2005).Chinese character acquisition and visual skills in two Chinese scripts [J].Reading and Writing, 18(2): 99-128.

Chen M.J., Yuen J.C.K.(1991).Effects of pinyin and script type on verbal processing: A Comparisons [J].International Journal of Behavioral Development, 14(4): 429-448.

Hsiao J.H., Cottrell G.W.(2009).Not all visual expertise is holistic, but it may be leftist: The case of Chinese character recognition [J].Psychological Science, 20:455-463.

Liu T., Hsiao J.(2012).The perception of simplified and traditional Chinese Characters in the eye of simplified and traditional Chinese readers [J].Journal of Vision, 12(9): 533-533.

Peng G., Minett J.W., Wang W.S.Y.(2010).Cultural background influences the liminal perception of Chinese characters: An ERP study [J].Journal of Neurolinguistics, 23(4): 416-426.

Sutton S., Braren M., Zubin J., John E.R.(1965).Evoked-potential correlates of stimulus uncertainty [J].Science, 150: 1187-1188.

Donchin E., Ritter W., Mccallum C.(1978).Cognitive psychophysiology: the endogenous components of the ERP [M] //Callaway P., Tueting P., Koslow S.Brainevent related potentials in man.New York: Academic Press, 349-411.

Tso R.V.Y., Au T.K., Hsiao J.H.(2011).The influence of writing experiences on holistic processing in Chinese character recognition [C]//Carlson L., Hoelscher C., Shipley T.F.Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society.Austin: Cognitive Science Society, 1442-1447.

Seybolt P.J., Chiang G.K.-K.(1979).Introduction [M]//Seybolt P.K., Chiang G.K.-K.Language reform in China: Documents and commentary.New York: M.E.Sharpe, 1-10.

Mcbride-Chang C.(2004).Children’s literacy development [M].London: Edward Arnold.

Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences [M].10th ed.Xinhuadictionary.Beijing: Commercial, 2004.

Sheridan E.M.(1981).Literacy and language reform in the People’s Republic of China [J].Reading Teacher, 20: 804-808.

Lin D., Mcbride-Chang C., Shu H., Zhang Y., Li H., Zhang J., Aram D., Levin I.(2010).Small wins big analytic Pinyin skills promote Chinese word reading [J].Psychological Science, 1117-1122.

Wang Y., Mcbride-Chang C.(2012).Invented Pinyin spelling and Chinese reading in kindergarten[R].Hong Kong:Global Conference on Disorders in Auditory Processing, Literacy, Language and Related Sciences.

Mcbride-Chang C., Lin D., Liu P.D., Aram D., Levin I., Cho J.R., Shu H., Zhang J.(2012).The ABC’s of Chinese: Maternal mediation of Pinyin for Chinese children’s early literacy skills [J].Reading and Writing, 25(1): 283-300.

Pan J., Mcbride-Chang C., Shu H., Liu H., Zhang Y., Li H.(2011).What is in the naming? A 5-year longitudinal study of early rapid naming and phonological sensitivity in relation to subsequent reading skills in both native Chinese and English as a second language[J].Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(4): 897–908.

Mcbride-Chang C., Bialystok E., Chong K.K., Li Y.(2004).Levels of phonological awareness in three cultures [J].Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 89(2): 93-111.

Ho C.Sh, Ng T.T., Ng W.K.(2003).A “radical” approach to reading development in Chinese: The role of semantic radicals and phonetic radicals [J].Journal of Literacy Research.35(3): 849–878.

Yeung P.S., Ho C.S.H., Chik P.P.M., Lo L.Y., Luan H., Chan D.W.O., Chung K.K.H.(2011).Reading and spelling Chinese among beginning readers: What skills make a difference? [J].Scientific Studies of Reading, 15(4): 285-313.

Tong X., Mcbride-Chang C., Shu H.,Wongamy.(2009).Morphological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and spelling errors: Keys to understanding early Chinese literacy acquisition [J].Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(5): 426-452.

Yeung P.S., Ho C.S.H., Chan D.W.O., Chung K.K.H.(2013).Modeling the relationships between cognitive-linguistic skills and writing in Chinese among elementary grades students [J].Reading and writing, 26(7): 1195-1221.

Yeung P.S., Ho C.S.H., Wong Y.K., Chan D.W.O., Chung K.K.H., Lo L.Y.(2013).Longitudinal predictors of Chinese word reading and spelling among elementary grade students [J].Applied Psycholinguistics, 34(06): 1245-1277.

Lam S.S.Y., Mcbride-Chang C.(2013).Parent-child joint writing in Chinese kindergarteners: Explicit instruction in radical knowledge and stroke writing skills [J].Writing Systems Research, 5(1): 88-109.

Lin D.(2009) Maternal Mediation of Writing in Young Children: A Comparison Between Hong Kong and Beijing [D].Hong Kong: CUHK.

Wang Y., Mcbride-Chang C., Chan S.F.(2013).Correlates of Chinese kindergarteners’ word reading and writing: The unique role of copying skills? [J].Reading and Writing, 27(7): 1281-1302.

Mcbride-Chang C., Chung K.K., Tong X.(2011).Copying skills in relation to word reading and writing in Chinese children with and without dyslexia [J].Journal of experimental child psychology, 110(3): 422-433.

Tan L.H., Spinks, J.A., Eden G.F., Perfetti C.A., Siok W.T.(2005).Reading depends on writing, in Chinese [J].Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(24): 8781-8785.

Floresd’Arcais G.B.(1994).Order of strokes writing as a cue for retrieval in reading Chinese characters [J].European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 6(4): 337-355.

Tseng M.H., Chow S.M.K.(2000).Perceptual-motor function of school-age children with slow handwriting speed [J].American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 54(1): 83-88.

Li H., Corrie L.F., Wong B.K.M.(2008).Early teaching of Chinese literacy skills and later literacy outcomes [J].Early Child Development and Care, 178(5): 441-459.

Yeung P.S., Ho C.S.H., Chan D.W.O., Chung K.K.H.(2013).Contribution of oral language skills, linguistic skills, and transcription skills to Chinese.Written composition among fourth-grade students [J].Discourse Processes, 50(7): 498-529.

Gottardo A., Chiappe P., Yan B., Siegel L., Gu Y.(2006).Relationships between first and second language phonological processing skills and reading in Chinese-English speakers living in English-speaking contexts [J].Educational Psychology, 26(3): 367-393.

Chen X., Xu F., Nguyen T.K., Hong G., Wang Y.(2010).Effects of cross-language transfer on first-language phonological awareness and literacy skills in Chinese children receiving English instruction [J].Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3): 712-728.

Chen X., Anderson R.C., Li W., Hao M., Wu X., Shu H.(2004).Phonological wareness of bilingual and monolingual Chinese children [J].Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1): 142-151.

Tse S.K., Lam W-I J., Loh K.-Y.E., Lam Y.-H.R.(2007).The influence of the language that Hong Kong primary school students habitually speak at home on their Chinese reading ability in school [J].Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 28(5): 400-417.

Tong X., Mo J., Shu H., Zhang Y., Chan S., Mcbride-Chang C.(2014).Understanding Chinese children’s complex writing: Global ratings and lower level mechanical errors[J].Writing Systems Research, 6(2): 215-229.

Cheng L., Li M., Kirby J.R., Qiang H., Wade-Woolley L.(2010).English language immersion and students’ academic achievement in English, Chinese and mathematics [J].Evaluation & Research in Education, 23(3): 151-169.

Knell E., Qiang H., Pei M., Chi Y., Siegel L.S., Zhao L., Zhao W.(2007).Early English immersion and literacy in Xi’an, China [J].The Modern Language Journal, 91(3): 395-417.

[1] 香港城市大学应用社会系

[2] 香港中文大学生命全期发展实验室

[3] 香港中文大学社会科学学院副院长、心理系发展中心主任

[4] 语义部首与其所处汉字语义相关程度越高，则代表该汉字语义透明度越高。

[5] 尽管存在粤语拼音，但由于该拼音系统较为复杂，学校并不教授。

[6] 部首意识：儿童意识到一部分汉字（复合字）可以被拆分不同的部首（语音部首和语义部首）。

[7] 标识汉字所属语义范畴，或所属类别。例如“钅”通常出现在标识各类金属名称的汉字中，如 “铁”“铜”“锌”等。

[8] 标识汉字发音，与汉字真实发音的一致程度因字而异。

[9] 特定部首在不同汉字中出现的位置相对固定。语义部首通常出现在左侧，比如“钅”在“铁”字左侧；语音部首更多出现在右侧，比如“昌”在“唱”的右侧。

[10] 该研究中，中文抄写使用延迟抄写的方式对陌生的中文字进行默抄；而与中文无关的抄写则是对韩文、希伯来文和越南文的部分符号进行复刻式抄写。

[11] “节俭”规划（economical programming）是指，与随机的、无组织的汉字笔画涂抹相反，通过对书写顺序的规划、对手部动作的组织，最大程度上减少无效动作，提高书写效率。

[12] 此处的同音字是指，声母和韵母组合均相同的字。

[13] 参与“集中英语课程”的儿童每星期接受10小时的英语教学，必须学会的英文词汇亦较参与“常规英语课程”的儿童多2~4倍。