序言
1.本书是第一本将这些事件称为“全球化”的书籍：Manfred B. Steger写了一部很有帮助的介绍性书籍，他认为全球化的关键就是时间与空间的浓缩，像大多数书籍一样，他的书也着重关注20世纪70年代。一些分析家察觉到了公元1000年以前的全球化：Justin Jennings认为从古代美索不达米亚、卡霍基亚和瓦里文化中都能看到城市影响着周围的乡村。早期的学者，特别是David Northrup和John Man，已经注意到公元1000年的重要性；而Janet Abu-Lughod认为蒙古人的征服是迈向更广泛一体化的关键一步。C. A. Bayly将全球化定义为“从本地或区域的社会进步，扩展为世界性的社会进步”，他认为第一阶段，即他所说的“古老的全球化”，发生在1500年后。
请参见Steger, Globalization: A Very Short Introduction (2009); Jennings, Globalizations and the Ancient World (2011); Northrup, “Globalization and the Great Convergence: Rethinking World History in the Long Term.” Journal of World History 16.3 (2005): 249-267; Man, Atlas of the Year 1000 (2001); Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250-1350 (1989); Bayly, “‘Archaic’ and ‘Modern’ Globalization in the Eurasian and Africa Arena, c. 1750-1850.” Globalization in World History, ed. A. G. Hopkins (2002).
2.“拍打”：Magnus Magnusson和Hermann Pálsson翻译，The Vinland Sagas: The Norse Discovery of America (1965): 100.
3.92%：Jon Emont, “Why Are There No New Major Religions？” The Atlantic (August 6, 2017).
第1章 公元1000年的世界
1.四分之一至三分之一：李中清、王丰的One Quarter of Humanity: Malthusian Mythology and Chinese Realities, 1700-2000 (1996): 6 (Figure 1.1)。该书中译本《人类的四分之一：马尔萨斯的神话与中国的现实：1700—2000》由生活·读书·新知三联书店出版。
2.持续的繁荣：Andrew M. Watson, “The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100.” Journal of Economic History 34.1 (1974): 8-35; Watson, Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700-1100 (1983). “Of Seeds, Seasons, and Seas: Andrew Watson’s Medieval Agrarian Revolution Forty Years Later”, Journal of Economic History 74.4 (2014): 1205-1220. Paolo Squatriti的这篇文章已经证明，Watson关于作物在整个伊斯兰世界传播的原始理论，经受住了时间的考验。
3.3500万至4000万人：Andrew Watson, “A Medieval Green Revolution.” The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900: Studies in Economic and Social History, ed. A. L. Udovitch (1981): 29-58, 30; Charles Issawi, “The Area and Population of the Arab Empire: An Essay in Speculation.” the same volume, 375-396, 387.
4.“谷物化”：R. I. Moore, The First European Revolution, c. 970-1215 (2000): 30-39，30页提及“两倍的人口”，33页提及“科尔多瓦的人口”，46-48页提及“谷物化”。
5.中世纪温暖期：H. H. Lamb, “The Early Medieval Warm Epoch and Its Sequel.” Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 1 (1965): 13-37.
6.中世纪气候异常期：PAGES 2k Consortium,“Continental-Scale Temperature Variability During the Past Two Millennia.” Nature Geoscience 6 (2013): 339-346. 显示降温和变暖趋势以及干旱和湿润时段的世界地图，请参见由Sebastian Lüning领导的Medieval Warm Period地图计划，网址是http://t1p.de/mwp。另请参见葛全胜等人关于中国的论文，以及Christian Rohr等人关于欧洲的论文，收录在The Palgrave Handbook of Climate History, ed. Sam White et al. (2018)。
7.正在进行的研究：Alexander F. More, “New Interdisciplinary Evidence on Climate and the Environment from the Last Millennium.” 2019年9月9日—14日，法国特蕾莱举办了关于公元1000年历史的会议，该文是参会论文（未正式发表）。
8.60%：Valerie Hansen, The Open Empire: A History of China to 1600, 2nd ed. (2015): 239. 该书中文版《开放的帝国：1600年前的中国历史》已由江苏人民出版社出版。
9.拜占庭帝国是最繁荣的国家：Cécile Morrisson, “La place de Byzance dans l’histoire de l’économie médiévale (v. 717- 1204): méthodes, acquis, perspectives.” Richesse et croissance au Moyen ?ge. Orient et Occident (Monographies de Travaux et Mémoires 43), ed. D. Barthélemy and Jean-Marie Martin, (2014): 11-30.
10.代数：Sonja Brentjes, “Al-jabr.” Encyclopaedia of Islam, 3rd ed. (2007).
11.大多数人以在位的国王或教皇来纪年：UtaC.Merzbach, “Calendars and the Reckoning of Time.” Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1983) 3: 17-30.
12.各种各样的巡回布道者：Robert E. Lerner, “Millennialism, Christian.” Dictionary of the Middle Ages 8: 384-388; Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Messianism in Medieval and Reformation Europe and Its Bearing on Modern Totalitarian Movements, 3rd ed. (1970).
13.1000万至1500万：Tom Clynes, “Exclusive: Laser Scans Reveal Maya ‘Megalopolis’ Below Guatemalan Jungle.” National Geographic (February 1, 2018). 可在线阅读。
14.玛雅城市蒂卡尔：Michael D. Coe and Stephen Houston, The Maya, 9th ed. (2015)：73页，84页提及“早期农业”，126页提及“蒂卡尔的人口”，176页提及“奇琴伊察”。
15.超过50%：Massimo Livi-Bacci, A Concise History of World Population (2017): 25.
16.巴黎有2～3万人口：William W. Clark and John Bell Henneman, Jr., “Paris.” William A. Percy, “Population and Demography.” William W.Kibler et al., Medieval France: An Encyclopedia (1995): 698-707, 751-752.
17.古城杰内：Conrad Leyser, Naomi Standen, and Stephanie Wynne-Jones, “Settlement, Landscape and Narrative: What Really Happened in History.” The Global Middle Ages, ed. Catherine Holmes and Naomi Standen, Past and Present, Supplement 13 (2018): 232-260.
18.后来使用阿拉伯语和波斯语写作的地理学家们：Travis E. Zadeh, Mapping Frontiers Across Medieval Islam: Geography, Translations, and the ‘Abbāsid Empire, (2011).
19.“其中一个”：Ishaan Tharoor, “Muslims Discovered America Before Columbus, Claims Turkey’s Erdogan.” Washington Post (November 15, 2004)；哥伦布1492年10月29日的日记条目，Journal of the First Voyage of Christopher Columbus, ed. Julius E. Olson and Edward Gaylord Bourne (1906): 133.
20.“比鲁尼发现了美洲”：Frederick S. Starr, Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane (2014): 375-378.
21.地球是一个球体：Saiyid Samad Husain Rizvi, “A Newly Discovered Book of Al-Biruni: ‘Ghurrat-uz-Zijat’, and al-Biruni’s Measurements of Earth’s Dimensions.” Al-Biruni Commemorative Volume, ed. Hakim Mohammed Said (1979): 605-680, 617.
22.他怀疑地球的另一端大部分：Fuat Sezgin(ed.), The Determination of the Coordinates of Positions for the Correction of Distances Between Cities: A Translation from the Arabic of al-Biruni’s Kitab Tahdid Nihayat al-Amakiin Litashih Masafat al-Masakin by Jamil Ali (1992): 102-110, which translates 136-146 of al-Bīrūnī,Kitāb Tadīd nihāyāt al-amākin li-taī masāfāt al-masākin, ed. P. Bulgakov (Frankfurt, 1992).
23.“象”之所以成为“主教”：Helmut Nickel, “Games and Pastimes.” Dictionary of the Middle Ages (1985): 5: 347-353.
24.海象牙：来自2015年3月11日，与美国自然历史博物馆的博物馆技术员Anibal Rodriguez的私人交流。
25.一天240公里：John Howland Rowe, Inca Culture at the Time of the Spanish Conquest (1946): 231-232.
26.介于每天16～32公里：Ross Hassig, Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control (1995): 66.
27.正常行军速度：请参见U.S. Department of the Army Techniques Publication, “Foot Marches (FM 21-18)” (April 2017): Section 2-41.
28.每天100公里：Ashleigh N. Deluca, “World’s Toughest Horse Race Retraces Genghis Khan’s Postal Route.” National Geographic News (August 7, 2014); H. Desmond Martin, The Rise of Chingis Khan and His Conquest of North China (1950): 18.
29.金刚鹦鹉羽毛：Stephen H. Lekson, “Chaco’s Hinterlands.” The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology, ed. Timothy R. Pauketat (2012): 597-607, 602-603.
30.每小时27公里：Anders Winroth, The Age of the Vikings (2014): 72.
31.其速度约为维京船以正常风速航行时的一半：Ben R. Finney, Hokule’a: The Way to Tahiti (1979); Ben Finney, Voyage of Rediscovery: A Cultural Odyssey Through Polynesia (1994): 127.
32.划艇可以向任何方向行驶：来自2017年9月1日，与康涅狄格州布兰福德港经验丰富的水手Mark Howard-Flanders的私人交流。
33.格陵兰洋流：Birgitta Wallace, “The Norse in Newfoundland: L’Anse aux Meadows and Vinland.” Newfoundland Studies 19.1 (2003):5-43, 8.
34.“风停了”：Keneva Kunz (trans.), The Vinland Sagas: The Icelandic Sagas About the First Documented Voyages Across the North Atlantic, ed. Gísli Sigurdsson (2008): 4.
35.一天移动超过160公里：请参见http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/。另请参见非常有用的网站：https://earth.nullschool.net/，可以在该网站上查到风和洋流。
36.这些人很容易得坏血病：Cassandra Tate, “Japanese Castaways of 1834: The Three Kichis.” (posted July 23, 2009), http://www.history link.org/File/9065; Frederik L. Schodt, Native American in the Land of the Shogun: Ranald MacDonald and the Opening of Japan (2003).
37.船只的航行速度会更快：Tom Garrison and Robert Ellis, Oceanography: An Invitation to Marine Science, 9th ed. (2016)：230页提到了季风，232页的图8.19a和b有关季风模式，251页的图9.3是关于北大西洋环流的，255页的图9.8a和b涉及海面洋流。
38.“这条航线”：George F. Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times，由John Carswell修订并扩充（1995）：61页提及最有用的路线，74页提及航行时间。
39.洋流的方向：来自2015年10月，与印度尼西亚著名水下摄影师Robert Delfs的私人交流。
40.中国消费者非常喜欢海参：来自2015年10月，与新加坡国立大学历史系杰出教授王赓武的私人交流。C. C. McKnight, The Voyage to Marege’: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia (1976); Derek John Mulvaney, “Bêche-de-mer, Aborigines and Australian History.” Journal of the Royal Society of Victoria 79.2(1966): 449-457.
41.船用磁性罗盘：Robert K. G. Temple, The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention (1986): 148-157.
42.马乌·皮埃鲁格：Steve Thomas, The Last Navigator: A Young Man, an Ancient Mariner, and the Secrets of the Sea (1987).
43.当天气晴朗的时候：马乌·皮埃鲁格讣告，载于Washington Post (July 21, 2010)。
44.贝奥武夫的追随者们：Seamus Heaney (trans.), Beowulf: A New Verse Translation (2001).
45.小型战队：Ben Raffield, “Bands of Brothers: A Re-appraisal of the Viking Great Army and Its Implications for the Scandinavian Colonization of England.” Early Medieval Europe 24.3(2016): 308-337，其中314页提及群体规模，317页提及妇女，325页提及不同种族。
46.成功吸引到更多追随者的战队领袖：Jonathan Karam Skaff, Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbors: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580-800 (2012): 12-15, 75-104; Timothy Reuter, “Plunder and Tribute in the Carolingian Empire.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th Series, 35 (1985): 75-94; Naomi Standen, “Followers and Leaders in Northeastern Eurasia, ca. Seventh to Tenth Centuries.” Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity: Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, ca. 250-750, ed. Nicola di Cosmo and Michael Maas (2018): 400-418.
47.大约是在公元900年：Gwyn Jones, A History of the Vikings (1968): 290.
48.全球航线网络：John Man, Atlas of the Year 1000 (2001).
第2章 西进，年轻的维京人
我的同事Anders Winroth慷慨地推荐了过去20年里的一些关键性读物，尽管他对萨迦的历史价值持怀疑态度。伯明翰大学的Chris Callow和牛津大学的Conrad Leyser也尽力向我解释怀疑论者的立场。
1.学者们目前仍在争论：Keneva Kunz (trans.), The Vinland Sagas: The Icelandic Sagas About the First Documented Voyages Across the North Atlantic, ed. Gísli Sigurdsson (2008)：5—10页提到了雷夫的航行，31—32页提到了古德丽德的歌声，45页提到了卡尔塞夫尼的遭遇。
2.铁制武器可以杀死人类：Annette Kolodny, In Search of First Contact: The Vikings of Vinland, the Peoples of the Dawnland, and the Anglo-American Anxiety of Discovery (2012)：58页提及“斯克里林人”的意义，59页提及铁制武器，60页提及联盟，272页提及瓦巴纳基联盟，274页提及噪声制造者。
3.从德意志或法兰西地区俘获的战俘或买来的奴隶：Ben Raffield, “Bands of Brothers: A Re-appraisal of the Viking Great Army and Its Implications for the Scandinavian Colonization of England.” Early Medieval Europe 24.3 (2016): 308-337, 325.
4.古德丽德……映衬着弗雷迪斯的任性：Nancy Marie Brown, The Far Traveler: Voyages of a Viking Woman (2006).
5.数百年的漫长过程：Anders Winroth, The Conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, Merchants, and Missionaries in the Remaking of Northern Europe (2012).
6.爱沙尼亚萨尔梅：Heather Pringle, “New Visions of the Vikings.” National Geographic 231.3 (March 2017): 30-51, 39.
7.方帆被引入：John Haywood指出，丹麦半岛一些刻有如尼文的石头上，还刻有方帆的图案，其历史可追溯到大约公元600年。参见其The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings (1995): 9-10.
8.维京船的现代复制品：Max Vinner, Boats of the Viking Ship Museum (2017): 20-21.
9.小型青铜佛陀雕像：Dieter Ahrens, “Die Buddhastatuette von Helg?.” Pantheon 22 (1964): 51-52; Scott Ashley, “Global Worlds, Local Worlds, Connections and Transformations in the Viking Age.” Byzantium and the Viking World, ed. Fedir Androshchuk et al. (2016): 363-387, 364, 372.
10.奥斯伯格船：Thorleif Sj?vold, The Viking Ships in Oslo (1985): 22.
11.战舰：丹麦罗斯基勒的维京船博物馆展出了五种不同的船型。
12.鳕鱼骨的数量越来越多：James H. Barrett and David C. Orton (eds.), Cod and Herring: The Archaeology and History of Medieval Sea Fishing (2016).
13.北欧人……到达冰岛：雷克雅未克871±2移民展览博物馆通过将已知的最早冰岛移民与格陵兰岛的冰芯进行匹配，来确定移民年代。
14.首次被创作出来的：Erik Wahlgren, “Vinland Sagas.” Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia (1993): 704-705.
15.他们希望突出那些萨迦创作者的创造力：来自2017有如尼文的石头上，还刻有方帆的图案，其历史可追溯到大约公元600年。参见其The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Vikings (1995): 9-10.
16.维京船的现代复制品：Max Vinner, Boats of the Viking Ship Museum (2017): 20-21.
17.小型青铜佛陀雕像：Dieter Ahrens, “Die Buddhastatuette von Helg?.” Pantheon 22 (1964): 51-52; Scott Ashley, “Global Worlds, Local Worlds, Connections and Transformations in the Viking Age.” Byzantium and the Viking World, ed. Fedir Androshchuk et al. (2016): 363-387, 364, 372.
18.奥斯伯格船：Thorleif Sj?vold, The Viking Ships in Oslo (1985): 22.
19.战舰：丹麦罗斯基勒的维京船博物馆展出了五种不同的船型。
20.鳕鱼骨的数量越来越多：James H. Barrett and David C. Orton (eds.), Cod and Herring: The Archaeology and History of Medieval Sea Fishing (2016).
21.北欧人……到达冰岛：雷克雅未克871±2移民展览博物馆通过将已知的最早冰岛移民与格陵兰岛的冰芯进行匹配，来确定移民年代。
22.首次被创作出来的：Erik Wahlgren, “Vinland Sagas.” Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia (1993): 704-705.
23.他们希望突出那些萨迦创作者的创造力：来自2017年8月23日，与加州大学洛杉矶分校研究古代北欧和中世纪斯堪的纳维亚的教授Jesse Byock的私人交流。
24.这些否认者认定：Sverrir Jakobsson, “Vinland and Wishful Thinking: Medieval and Modern Fantasies.” Canadian Journal of History/ Annales canadiennes d’histoire 47 (2012): 493-514; Jerold C. Frakes, “Vikings, Vinland and the Discourse of Eurocentrism.” Journal of English and German Philology 100.1 (April 2001): 157-199.
25.逸事“汤”的说法：Theodore M. Andersson列出了口头流传的七种逸事（例如传记），见于The Growth of the Medieval Icelandic Sagas (1180-1280) (2006)。另请见Margaret Cormack, “Fact and Fiction in the Icelandic Sagas.” History Compass 5.1 (2007): 201-217。
26.两部萨迦在……主要事件上是一致的：在Erik’s Saga中，卡尔塞夫尼到达文兰后，索瓦尔德就死了；而Greenlanders’ Saga则把索瓦尔德的死亡写在卡尔塞夫尼到达之前。
27.接触或双方存在着涓流贸易：Robert W. Park, “Contact Between the Norse Vikings and the Dorset Culture in Arctic Canada.” Antiquity 82 (2008): 189-198.
28.因纽特人：Ralph T. Pastore, “Archaeology, History, and the Beothuks”, Newfoundland Studies 9.2 (1993): 260-278; Ralph Pastore, “The Collapse of the Beothuk World”, Acadiensis: Journal of the History of the Atlantic Region 19.1 (1989): 52-71.
29.在兰塞奥兹牧草地留下了一些手工艺品：Birgitta Wallace, Westward Vikings (2006)：21—23页详细地讨论了日期，25页和29—30页提及那些将兰塞奥兹牧草地当作维京据点的人，38—48页有对每个据点结构的详细描述，78页涉及人口估计，87—88页提及兰塞奥兹牧草地的贝奥图克人和因努人。
30.沿着海岸：Birgitta Wallace, “L’Anse aux Meadows: Leif Eriksson’s Home in the Americas.” Journal of the North Atlantic, Special Volume 2 (2009)：114-125，116页涉及16世纪时的贸易路线，120页提到动物骨骼证据，121页提到卡地亚和沙勒尔湾。
31.“把一部分人连同他们的一些毛皮送到岸上”：Ramsay Cook, The Voyages of Jacques Cartier (1993): 19-21.
32.“落在一群人中间”：Henry Rowe Schoolcraft (1793-1864), Historical and Statistical Information Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States, Volume 1 (1851): 85.
33.“那里的人们是来自咸水的绿色人种”：Adam of Bremen, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen, trans. Francis J. Tschan, introduction by Timothy Reuter (2002): 218-219.
34.“除了那个岛”：1121年到1400年之间的一些冰岛语手稿中也提到了文兰。Ari Thorgilsson (born 1067), Book of the Icelanders (íslendingabók)，是最重要的著作之一。
35.但他们从未通过发掘来检验自己的理论：W. A Munn,Wineland Voyages: Location of Helluland, Markland and Vinland（1946年时重印了1914年的私人印制的小册子）。
36.“我们发出了一声喊叫”：Anne Stine Ingstad, The New Land with the Green Meadows (2013): 169.
37.其他物件：Ingstad and Anne Stine Ingstad, The Viking Discovery of America: The Excavation of a Norse Settlement in L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland (2001)：105—109页提及文兰的意义，137页提及铸造品，157页提及磨针器和纺锤轮，160页提及针。
38.像“草甸之地”这样的通用名称：Erik Wahlgren, “Fact and Fancy in the Vinland Sagas.” Old Norse Literature and Mythology: A Symposium, ed. Edgar C. Polomé (1969): 44, 52-53.
39.发现的三颗灰胡桃果：Birgitta Wallace, “The Norse in Newfoundland: L’Anse aux Meadows and Vinland.” Newfoundland Studies 19.1 (2003)：10页提及萨迦，11页提到了附近没有田野，18—19页提到了造船，25页提到了计划离开，26页提到了灰胡桃果。
40.在仔细研究了：Erik Wahlgren, The Vikings and America (1986)：11—15页提及在格陵兰北部探险，163—164页提到了文兰的位置。关于文兰其他可能的位置，请参见“Suggested Locations of Places Mentioned in the Vinland Sagas.” Kunz, Vinland Sagas, 66-67。
41.1065年到1080年间铸造的：Svein H. Gullbekk, “The Norse Penny Reconsidered: The Goddard Coin—Hoax or Genuine？” Journal of the North Atlantic 33 (2017): 1-8; Steven L. Cox, “A Norse Penny from Maine.” Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga, ed. William W. Fitzhugh and Elizabeth I. Ward (2000): 206-207；大英博物馆的加雷斯·威廉姆斯于2016年7月11日发来了相关电子邮件。
42.被冰层保存下来的纺织品：Joel Bergland, “The Farm Beneath the Sand.” Fitzhugh and Ward, North Atlantic Saga, 295-303, 300.
43.一组人旅行到了：Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (trans.), The Vinland Sagas: The Norse Discovery of America (1965)：21页提及对格陵兰北部的探险，22页提及1379年的屠杀，23页提到了1492年教皇的信，42—43页提到了哥伦布。
44.这个雕像用海象牙制成：加拿大渥太华历史博物馆，登记号KeDq-7:325。
45.北欧人开始放弃他们在格陵兰的定居点：PAGES 2k Consortium, “Continental-Scale Temperature Variability During the Past Two Millennia.” Nature Geoscience 6 (2013): 339-346.
46.所有这些技术：Robert W. Park, “Adapting to a Frozen Coastal Environment.” The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology, ed. Timothy R. Pauketat (2012): 113-123.
47.格陵兰岛的北欧人人口：Niels Lynnerup, “Life and Death in Norse Greenland.” Fitzhugh and Ward, North Atlantic Saga, 285-294.
48.另类描述：来自2016年7月12日，与耶鲁大学英语系Roberta Frank的私人交流。
49.西格杜尔·史蒂芬森：Bi?rn Jonsen of Skarsaa, Description of Greenland and the Skálholt Map, Det Kongelige Bibliotek. Skálholt Map #431.6 (1590), www.myoldmaps.com.
第3章 公元1000年的泛美高速公路
三位耶鲁大学的同事慷慨地分享了他们的知识：已故的耶鲁大学人类学系荣誉教授Michael D. Coe；Mary Miller，艺术史教授，现任盖蒂研究所所长；Andrew Turner是耶鲁大学美术馆的博士后策展人，现在也在盖蒂研究所工作。2015年4月11日，华盛顿大学的John E. Kelly带我参观了卡霍基亚遗址；同样来自耶鲁大学的Michelle Young对安第斯山脉进行了精辟的评论；而谢菲尔德大学的Caroline Dodd Pennock则对这一观点进行了重大修正。
1.奇琴伊察：Geoffrey E. Braswell, “What We Know, What We Don’t Know, and What We Like to Argue About.” 源于耶鲁大学一次“Brownbag”考古学讨论（2017年12月8日）。
2.最大的玛雅球场：Mary Miller, The Art of Mesoamerica: From Olmec to Aztec (2012): 224.
3.牵牛花的汁液：Laura Filloy Nadal, “Rubber and Rubber Balls in Mesoamerica.” The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame, ed. E. Michael Whittington (2002): 21-31.
4.清理了神庙：Earl H. Morris, The Temple of the Warriors: The Adventure of Exploring and Restoring a Masterpiece of Native American Architecture in the Ruined Maya City of Chichén Itzá, Yucatan (1931): 62.
5.勇士神庙的许多壁画描绘了征服的场面：Michael D. Coe and Stephen Houston, The Maya, 9th ed. (2015)：126页，163页，174—198页提到了末世经典，182页，201页提到了公元987年所发生的事件，201—215页描述了奇琴伊察，214—219页提到玛雅潘城，242页提到了白色的路。
6.入侵者的皮肤是灰色的：Ann Axtell Morris根据勇士神庙的壁画绘制了一幅水彩画，并为那些仍可辨识的画像绘了黑白底稿，她还复制了壁画其他部分上的相似人物，以填补自己画上的缺失人物，这显示出她的细心。Earl H. Morris, Jean Charlot, and Ann Axtell Morris, The Temple of the Warriors at Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Publication No. 406 (1931): I: 386-395, II: plate 139 (Maya village being raided); plate 146 (naval battle); plate 147b (captive with beads in his hair); plate 147c (captive shown in color plate); plate 159 (Maya village at peace).
7.第二个受害者……挂满了珠子：请比照一下靠近危地马拉边境的墨西哥恰帕斯的博南帕克（Bonampak）遗址的壁画。
8.玛雅蓝：也被称为“凹凸棒石”，这种黏土的学名是含水富镁铝硅酸盐。
9.“强调部落……的不同”：Morris et al., The Temple of the Warriors, I: 402.
10.一个极端的解释：J. Eric S. Thompson, “Representations of Tlalchitonatiuh at Chichén Itzá, Yucatan, and at Baul, Escuintla.” Notes on Middle American Archaeology and Ethnology 19 (1943): 117-121；Donald E. Wray, “The Historical Significance of the Murals in the Temple of the Warriors, Chichén Itzá.” American Antiquity 11.1 (1945): 25-27.
11.这正是这些壁画完成的时间：Beniamino Volta and Geoffrey E. Braswell, “Alternative Narratives and Missing Data: Refining the Chronology of Chichén Itzá.” The Maya and Their Central American Neighbors: Settlement Patterns, Architecture, Hieroglyphic Texts, and Ceramics, ed. Geoffrey E. Braswell (2014): 356-402, 373-74 (Table 13.1 of inscriptions)，377—383页提到了时间。
12.修女院：John S. Bolles, Las Monjas: A Major Pre-Mexican Architectural Complex at Chichén Itzá (1977)：198页有1934年拍摄的第22号房间壁画上的船的照片，199页有Adela Breton根据壁画绘制的油画，202—203页有Jean Charlot根据壁画绘制的水彩画。
13.尽管许多……的图画：来自2018年6月7日，与丹麦罗斯基勒维京船博物馆的船舶工艺改造负责人S?ren Nielson的电子邮件。
14.丘马什人：Jeanne E. Arnold, “Credit Where Credit Is Due: The History of the Chumash Oceangoing Plank Canoe.” American Antiquity 72.2 (2007): 196-209; Brian Fagan, “The Chumash.” Time Detectives (1995).
15.“有些船只被风赶回来”：Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (trans.), The Vinland Sagas (1965): 51.
16.塞克查坎：Ernest Noyes (trans.), “Fray Alonso Ponce in Yucatán.” (Tulane) Middle American Research Series, Publication No. 4 (1934): 344-345.
17.30件工具：Bruce J. Bourque and Steven L. Cox, “Maine State Museum Investigation of the Goddard Site, 1979”, Man in the Northeast 22 (1981): 3-27，其中18页提到了海豹和海貂的牙。
18.拉马湾燧石：Kevin McAleese, “Ancient Uses of Ramah Chert.” 2002, http://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/environment/landscape-ramah-chert. php.
19.其他同时期遗址：Bruce J. Bourque, “Eastern North America: Evidence for Prehistoric Exchange on the Maritime Peninsula.” Prehistoric Exchange Systems in North America, ed. Timothy G. Baugh and Jonathan E. Ericson (1994): 34-35.
20.“流动的农民”：Elizabeth Chilton, “New England Algonquians: Navigating ‘Backwaters’ and Typological Boundaries.” The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology, ed. Timothy R.Pauketat (2012): 262-272.
21.米克马克人：Ronald F. Williamson, “What Will Be Has Always Been: The Past and Present of Northern Iroquoians.” The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology, 273-284.
22.俄亥俄州：Bernard K. Means, “Villagers and Farmers of the Middle and Upper Ohio River Valley, 11th to 17th Centuries AD: The Fort Ancient and Monongahela Traditions.” The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology, 297-309.
23.豆类植物进入了密西西比河流域：Deborah M. Pearsall, “People, Plants, and Culinary Traditions.” The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology, 73-84.
24.玉米、豆类和南瓜：Alice Beck Kehoe, America Before the European Invasions (2002)：177页提及卡霍基亚人被磨过的牙齿，178页提及玉米、豆类和南瓜。
25.当地居民并不仅仅依赖于种植的农作物：Timothy R. Pauketat, Ancient Cahokia and the Mississippians (2004): 7-9.
26.卡霍基亚：Justin Jennings, Globalizations and the Ancient World (2011)：83—84页提到了卡霍基亚的人口，87—88页提到了卡霍基亚的地区影响力，92—95页提到了斯皮罗。
27.这些不同的土堆，成为该地区卡霍基亚考古文化的显著特征：Robert L. Hall, “The Cahokia Site and Its People.” Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South, ed. Richard F. Townshend (2004): 93-103.
28.块石：Timothy R. Pauketat, Cahokia: Ancient America’s Great City on the Mississippi (2009)：31—36页提到了贸易，36—50页提到了块石，69—84页提到了72号土堆，92—98页提到了两则传说。
29.两万颗贝壳珠子：Melvin L. Fowler, “Mound 72 and Early Mississippian at Cahokia.” New Perspectives on Cahokia: Views from the Periphery, ed. James B. Stoltman (1991): 1-28.
30.陶器：John E. Kelly, “Cahokia as a Gateway Center.” Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest, ed. Thomas E. Emerson and R. Barry Lewis (1991): 61-80, 75.
31.俄克拉何马州的斯皮罗：Townshend, Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand, 150, 157.
32.这种黑曜石非常罕见：Alex W. Barker et al., “Mesoamerican Origin for an Obsidian Scraper from the Precolumbian Southeastern United States.” American Antiquity 67.1 (2002): 103-108.
33.中美洲人是这样改变自己的牙齿的：Gregory Perino, “Additional Discoveries of Filed Teeth in the Cahokia Area.” American Antiquity 32.4 (1967): 538-542.
34.巧克力的痕迹：Michael Bawaya, “A Chocolate Habit in Ancient North America.” Science 345.6200 (2014): 991.
35.《波波尔·乌》：Dennis Tedlock, Popol Vuh: The Definitive Edition of the Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life and the Glories of Gods and Kings (1996).
36.并不总是能被清晰地看出：Ruth M. Van Dyke, “Chaco’s Sacred Geography.” In Search of Chaco: New Approaches to an Archaeological Enigma, ed. David Grant Noble (2004): 79-85.
37.普韦布洛邦尼托：Thomas C. Windes, “This Old House: Construction and Abandonment at Pueblo Bonito.” Pueblo Bonito, ed. Jill E. Neitzel (2003): 14-32, 15.
38.大房子的用途：David Grant Noble, Ancient Ruins of the Southwest: An Archaeological Guide (1991)：27页提到了查科峡谷里的中美洲贸易商品，73页，115页提及壮观的房屋和道路。
39.来自科罗拉多西南部移民：Michael A. Schillaci, “The Development of Population Diversity at Chaco Canyon”, Kiva 68.3 (2003): 221-245.
40.被刻意修饰过的牙齿：Christy G. Turner II and Jacqueline A.Turner, Man Corn: Cannibalism and Violence in the Prehistoric American Southwest (1999): 128-129, 476 (Figure 5.7).
41.用绿松石换取羽毛鲜艳的热带鸟类：Stephen Nash, “Heated Politics, Precious Ruins.” New York Times (July 30, 2017): TR7-9.
42.出土的金刚鹦鹉的骨骼：来自2016年3月21日参观新墨西哥州布卢姆菲尔德的萨蒙遗址博物馆和研究图书馆时看到的展览标签，邮政编码87413。另请见Tori L. Myers, “Salmon Ruins Trail Guide.” (2013): 9, 15。
43.可可碱：Patricia L. Crown and W. Jeffrey Hurst, “Evidence of Cacao Use in the Prehispanic American Southwest.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106.7 (2009): 2113; W. Jeffrey Hurst, “The Determination of Cacao in Samples of Archaeological Interest.” Chocolate in Mesoamerica: A Cultural History of Cacao, ed. Cameron L. McNeil (2006): 104-113.
44.可可树首先……被人工种植：Zach Zorich, “Ancient Amazonian Chocolatiers.” Archaeology (January/February 2019): 12.
45.巧克力的加工：Sophie D. Coe and Michael D. Coe, The True History of Chocolate, 3rd ed. (2013): 21-24.
46.玛雅社会的崩溃：Douglas J. Kennett et al., “Development and Disintegration of Maya Political Systems in Response to Climate Change.” Science (2012): 788-791.
47.轮子：Richard W. Bulliet, The Wheel: Inventions and Reinventions (2016): 36-41.
48.银河：Joel W. Palka, Maya Pilgrimage to Ritual Landscapes: Insights from Archaeology, History, and Ethnography (2014): 81; Angela H. Keller, “A Road by Any Other Name: Trails, Paths, and Roads in Maya Language and Thought.” Landscapes of Movement: Trails, Paths, and Roads in Anthropological Perspective, ed.James E. Snead et al. (2009): 133-157, 145.
49.圣井：C. W. Ceram, Gods, Graves, and Scholars: The Story of Archaeology, trans. E. B. Garside (1953): 379, 385.
50.玛雅书籍：参见https://arstechnica.com/science/2016/09/confirmed-mysterious-ancient-maya-book-grolier-codex-is-genuine/。
51.献祭的人类：Friar Diego de Landa, Yucatan: Before and After the Conquest, trans. William Gates (1978)：17页提及经商的玛雅王子，90页提及圣井。
52.爱德华·赫伯特·汤普森：Clemency Chase Coggins and Orrin C. Shane III (eds.), Cenote of Sacrifice: Maya Treasures from the Sacred Well at Chichén Itzá (1984): 24-25.
53.商业神L：Simon Martin, “The Dark Lord of Maya Trade.” Fiery Pool: The Maya and the Mythic Sea, ed. Daniel Finamore and Stephen D. Houston (2010): 160-162.
54.铃铛：Dorothy Hosler, “Metal Production.” The Postclassic Mesoamerican World, ed. Michael E. Smith and Frances F. Berdan (2003): 159-171, 163; Warwick Bray, “Maya Metalwork and Its External Connections.” Social Process in Maya Prehistory: Studies in Honour of Sir Eric Thompson, ed. Norman Hammond (1977): 366-403.
55.悠久的冶金传统：Joanne Pillsbury et al., Golden Kingdoms: Luxury Arts in the Ancient Americas (2017)，特别是Joanne Pillsbury (1-13), John W. Hoopes (54-65), Stephen Houston(78-89), James A. Doyle (84)的贡献。
56.当地居民十分珍视铃铛：B. Cockrell et al., “For Whom the Bells Fall: Metals from the Cenote Sagrado, Chichén Itzá”, Archaeometry 57.6 (2015): 977-995.
57.社会上层的人：Izumi Shimada, “The Late Prehispanic Coastal States.” The Inca World: The Development of Pre-Columbian Peru, A.D. 1000-1534, ed. Laura Laurencich Minelli (2000)：49—64页，其中55—56页提及统治者对金属的使用，57—59页提及长途贸易。
58.秘鲁北部的居民：Heather Lechtman, The Central Andes, Metallurgy Without Iron (1980).
59.不同的色调：Ana Maria Falchetti de Sáenz, “The Darién Gold Pendants of Ancient Colombia and the Isthmus.” Metropolitan Museum of Art Journal 43 (2008): 39-73, 55-56.
60.砷青铜：Heather Lechtman, “Arsenic Bronze: Dirty Copper or Chosen Alloy？ A View from the Americas.” Journal of Field Archaeology 23.4 (1996): 477-514.
61.有毒的气体：M. Harper, “Possible Toxic Metal Exposure of Prehistoric Bronze Workers.” British Journal of Industrial Medicine 44 (1987): 652-656.
62.斧形货币：John Topic, “Exchange on the Equatorial Frontier: A Comparison of Ecuador and Northern Peru.” Merchants,Market, and Exchange in the Pre-Columbian World, ed. Kenneth G. Hirth and Joanne Pillsbury (2013): 335-360; Dorothy Hosler, “Ancient West Mexican Metallurgy: South and Central American Origins and West Mexican Transformations.” American Anthropologist, New Series, 90.4 (1988): 832-855；2019年5月6日，与科罗拉多大学丹佛分校人类学系Christopher Beekman的电子邮件。
63.瓦里：Susan E. Bergh (ed.), Wari: Lords of the Ancient Andes (2012).
64.大羊驼商队：来自2018年6月27日，与耶鲁大学Michelle Young的电子邮件。
65.一项计算机模拟：Richard T. Callaghan, “Prehistoric Trade Between Ecuador and West Mexico: A Computer Simulation of Coastal Voyages.” Antiquity 77 (2003): 796-804.
66.发现了黑曜石：Finamore and Houston, Fiery Pool, Catalog No. 57, 175.
67.奇琴伊察……开始衰落：Kennett et al., “Development and Disintegration.” 788-791.
68.“当它们……被带上船时”：Fernando Colón, The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus by His Son Ferdinand, trans. Benjamin Keen (1959): 231-232; Edward Wilson-Lee, The Catalogue of Shipwrecked Books: Young Columbus and the Quest for a Universal Library (2019): 87-88.
69.“小斧头”：Fernando Colón, Historie Del S.D. Fernando Colombo; Nelle quali s’ha particolare, & vera relatione della vita, & de’ fatti dell’Ammiraglio D. Christoforo Colombo, suo padre: Et dello scoprimento, ch’egli fece dell’Indie Occidentali, dette Mondo Nuovo, hora possedute dal Sereniss. Re catolico (1571): 200 (recto); John Florio, Dictionarie of the Italian and English Tongues (1611): 297.
第4章 欧洲的奴隶
耶鲁大学历史系的两位同事早前曾帮助过我，他们是Pau l Bushkovitch和Francesca Trivellato，后者目前在普林斯顿大学高级研究所工作。牛津大学的四位学者提出了重要的修改建议，他们是Catherine Holmes、Marek Jankowiak、Jonathan Shepard和Irian Shingiray。2015年3月，Gunilla Larson在斯德哥尔摩的瑞典国家博物馆与我见面；2017年8月，Elizabeth Walgenbach非常友好地带我参观了冰岛的国家博物馆，并给我看了格陵兰萨迦的原稿。
1.大多是男性：John Fennell, A History of the Russian Church to 1448 (1995): 4.
2.基督教世界：Andreas Kaplony, “The Conversion of the Turks of Central Asia to Islam as Seen by Arabic and Persian Geography:A Comparative Perspective.” Islamisation de l’Asie Centrale: Processus locaux d’acculturation du VIIe au XIe siècle, ed. étienne de la Vaissière (2008): 319-338.
3.各种北方民族的混合体：De administrando imperio, trans. R. J. H. Jenkins (1967): 9页，59页提及罗斯人使用斯堪的纳维亚语。
4.罗斯人到达：Simon Franklin and Jonathan Shepard, The Emergence of Rus, 750-1200 (1996)：12—13页提及旧拉多加的工具，16页提及梳子，47页提到了与公元8世纪美洲人的比较，114—119页提及公元911年和945年的条约，135页提及奥尔加对君士坦丁的回复，139页提及诺夫哥罗德的要塞，145—146页提及斯维亚托斯拉夫和拜占庭人，155页提及罗斯神祇，230页提到了11世纪被束缚的婚姻。
5.规划完好的城镇：Anders Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia: Vikings, Merchants, and Missionaries in the Remaking of Northern Europe (2012)：3页，30—31页提到克努特大帝，47—51页提到送礼物，48页图片5的说明：991 hoard，95—97页，97页图片18：runestone mentioning Khwarazm，99—100页提及海泽比的布局，139—141页提到斯堪的纳维亚的皈依，146页提及一神教的政治优势，160页，168页提到皈依的优点。
6.这些人的社群逐渐壮大：Jonathan Shepard, “Review Article: Back in Old Rus and the USSR: Archaeology, History and Politics.” English Historical Review 131.549 (2016): 384-405，393—394页提到了白湖定居点，398页提到了个别团体。
7.“奇怪毛皮”：Adam of Bremen, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen, trans. Francis J. Tschan (2002)：190页提到了奴役，198—199页提到了皮草的吸引力。
8.即使是那些气候更温暖地区：Janet Martin, Treasure of the Land of Darkness: The Fur Trade and Its Signficance for Medieval Russia (1986)：1页提及阿拉伯毛皮长袍，15页提到了罗斯人征服。
9.君士坦丁堡和巴格达的居民：Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry (1990): 11; Michael McCormick, Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, AD 300-900 (2001): 733-777.
10.“善待他们的奴隶”：Paul Lunde and Caroline Stone, Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North (2012): 126-127; Michael Rapoport在对比了Ibn Rusta的Kitāb al-A‘lāq al-nafīsa, ed. M. J. de Goeje (1891): 145-146后，对译文进行了修改。
11.“斯拉夫”：Marek Jankowiak, “From ‘Slav’ to ‘Slave’: Tracing a Semantic Shift.” 待刊。
12.第聂伯河：Jonathan Shepard, “Photios’ Sermons on the Rus Attack of 860: The Question of His Origins, and of the Route of the Rus.” Prosopon Rhomaikon: erg?nzende Studien zur Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit, ed. Alexander Beihammer et al. (2017):111-28, 118.
13.“戴着锁链的奴隶”：Porphyrogenitos, De administrando imperio, 9: 57—63页提到了奴隶与皮毛。
14.萨卡里巴人：Peter Golden, “al-Sa33kāliba.” Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed. (2012).
15.“运送海狸皮”：Lunde and Stone, Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness, 112 (Ibn Khurradadhbih on the routes of the Rādhānīya and the Rūs c. 830); Michael Rapoport在对比了Ibn Khurradadhbih的Kitāb al’masālik wa’l-mamālik, ed. M. J. de Goeje (1889): 149后，对译文进行了修改。
16.这些剑对罗斯人……至关重要：Scott Ashley, “Global Worlds, Local Worlds, Connections and Transformations in the Viking Age.” Byzantium and the Viking World, ed. Fedir Androshchuk et al. (2016): 363- 387, 376-378.
17.进口用以冶钢的熔炉的：Brian Gilmore and Robert Hoyland, “Bīrūnī on Iron.” Medieval Islamic Swords and Swordmaking: Kindi’s Treatise “On Swords and Their Kinds” (2006): 148-174; James Allan and Brian Gilmour, Persian Steel: The Tanavoli Collection (2000)：52页Figure 4A egg-shaped ingot，60—63页，75页提到比鲁尼对金属加工的描述。
18.乌尔伯特剑：Alan Williams, The Sword and the Crucible: A History of the Metallurgy of European Swords up to the16th Century (2012): 24—30页中有阿拉伯语史料，117—122页提及真假剑。
19.拜占庭商人则在那里出售丝绸：Thomas S. Noonan, “European Russia, c. 500-c. 1050.” The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 3: c. 900-c. 1204, ed. Timothy Reuter (1999)：487—513页，490—491页提到切尔森，494—495页提到东部斯拉夫人的居住地，506—509页提到公元900年以后的罗斯人贸易。
20.罗斯人自称基督徒：Lunde and Stone, Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness, 112; Jonathan Shepard, “Byzantine Emissions, not Missions, to Rus’, and the Problems of ‘False’ Christians”, Rus’ in the 9th-12th Centuries: Society, State, Culture, ed. N. A. Makarov and A. E. Leontiev (2014): 234-242.
21.宗教的生育仪式：Jens Peter Schj?dt, “Ibn Fadlan’s Account of a Rus Funeral: To What Degree Does It Reflect Nordic Myths.” Reflections on Old Norse Myths, ed. Pernille Hermann et al. (2007): 133-148.
22.斯堪的纳维亚葬礼的风俗：Anne Stalsberg, “Scandinavian Viking-Age Boat Graves in Old Rus.” Russian History 28.1-4 (2001): 359-401.
23.“我希望你赐给我一个富商”：Ah3mad Ibn Fad3lān, Mission to the Volga, trans. James E. Montgomery, in Two Arabic Travel Books, ed. Philip F. Kennedy and Shawkat M. Toorawa (2014)：165—266页，243—246页提及交易者的祈祷，246—247页提及死亡天使，250—251页提及与奴隶女孩发生性关系和她的死亡。
24.罗斯人把……当作……储藏容器：Thomas S. Noonan, “Fluctuations in Islamic Trade with Eastern Europe During the Viking Age.” Harvard Ukrainian Studies 16 (1992): 237-259, 239-240.
25.有14 295枚硬币：Gunnar Andersson, Go Beyond the Legend: The Vikings Exhibition (2016): 37.
26.萨曼帝国：Marek Jankowiak, “Dirham Flows into Northern and Eastern Europe and the Rhythms of the Slave Trade with the Islamic World.” Viking-Age Trade: Silver, Slaves and Gotland, ed. J. Gruszczyński, M. Jankowiak, and J. Shepard (forthcoming 2020): Chapter 6.
27.40万枚：Marek Jankowia提出的数字是40万，而Jonathan Shepard认为100万是一个“清醒的估计”，来自2018年10月26日的私人交流。
28.每年能买1000名：在2018年10月25日，Marek Jankowiak向我解释了他增加早前估算的原因，他原先的估算见于2012年2月27日的“Dirhams for Slaves: Investigating the Slavic Slave Trade in the Tenth Century”一文，文章可在academia.edu获得。
29.“丹麦区”：F. Donald Logan, The Vikings in History, 3rd ed. (2005)：122页提及北方地区，153—160页提及980—1035年，维京海盗袭击英格兰。
30.西班牙铸造的24枚硬币：Ann Christys, Vikings in the South: Voyages to Iberia and the Mediterranean (2015): 7-8.
31.北欧人到西西里岛的航行：James M. Powell, “Sicily, Kingdom of.” Dictionary of the Middle Ages: 11: 263-276.
32.涂鸦：Krijnie N. Ciggaar, Western Travellers to Constantinople, The West and Byzantium, 962-1204: Cultural and Political Relations (1996): 126-127; Sigfús Bl?ndal, The Varangians of Byzantium, trans. Benedikt S. Benedikz (1978): 233.