一、乌拉圭回合谈判前的国际纺织品和服装贸易法律制度
纺织品和服装贸易是国际贸易的重要组成部分,也是发展中国家对外贸易实力的主要体现。与农产品相似,纺织品和服装也长期游离于多边贸易体制之外,发达国家往往会采取各种措施保护本国纺织业,限制他国纺织品和服装的进口。
发达国家对纺织品和服装进口的管制起源于20世纪五六十年代。在发达国家的推动下,世界纺织品贸易会议于1961年在日内瓦召开,参会国家签订了第一个国际性纺织品协议——《国际棉纺织品贸易短期安排》(Short-Term Arrangement Regarding International Trade in Cotton Textiles),该安排有效期为1年。随后,该安排被发展为一项长期安排,主要内容即是对全部棉纺织品实施歧视性数量限制,主要采取双边纺织品协议的方式对产品进口进行限制,这种情况一直持续到1973年。
在制定长期安排期间,就有国家企图将安排的范围扩展到羊毛和人造纤维。[1]这一企图在1973年成为了现实,有关国家达成了《多种纤维协定》(Multi-Fiber Arrangement,MFA),彻底取代原有的《国际棉纺织品贸易短期安排》,进一步通过双边协议的方式对发展中国家纺织品进口实施限制。历史上各国共订立了四个《多种纤维协定》,第四个协定的有效期到1994年12月31日,中国在1984年1月17日成为协定缔约方。
二、WTO体制中的纺织品和服装贸易法律制度
上述纺织品和服装的贸易规则对国际贸易造成了极为严重的扭曲,带有强烈的贸易保护主义色彩,发展中国家的出口利益因此受到了极大的影响。因此,在乌拉圭回合谈判中,发展中国家强烈要求将纺织品和服装贸易纳入到多边贸易体制之中。经过长期谈判,发展中国家在服务贸易、知识产权领域中作出巨大让步,发达国家与发展中国家终于就纺织品与服装贸易回归多边贸易体制达成一致,这就是著名的《纺织品与服装协定》(Agreement on Textiles and Clothing,ATC)。该协定适用于毛涤和纱、机织物、纺织制品、服装四大类别,完全涵盖了成员方根据MFA实施数量限制的全部产品。
(一)《纺织品与服装协定》的贸易自由化安排
ATC的核心就在于逐步实现纺织品与服装贸易的自由化。为了达成这一目标,ATC采取了多种措施。该协定第2条明确规定,各成员方在《WTO协定》生效前保持MFA所限制的数量,必须在《WTO协定》生效后60天内将有关情况详细通知纺织品监督机构(Textiles Monitoring Body,TMB),未通知的措施应该立即取消。
Article 2
1.All quantitative restrictions within bilateral agreements maintained under Article 4 or notified under Article 7 or 8 of the MFA in force on the day before the entry into force of the WTO Agreement shall, within 60 days following such entry into force, be notified in detail, including the restraint levels, growth rates and flexibility provisions, by the Members maintaining such restrictions to the Textiles Monitoring Body provided for in Article 8 (referred to in this Agreement as the “TMB”). Members agree that as of the date of entry into force of the WTO Agreement, all such restrictions maintained between GATT 1947 contracting parties, and in place on the day before such entry into force, shall be governed by the provisions of this Agreement.
根据该条的规定,成员方不仅不得维持原有的限制措施,也不得采取新的限制措施。对此,TMB在“土耳其进出口限制案”中认为:In concluding its examination of the measure mutually agreed between Turkey and the United States, the TMB recalled that Article 2.4 of the ATC states that “\[n\]o new restrictions in terms of products or Members shall be introduced except under the provisions of this Agreement or relevant GATT 1994 provisions”. After having considered the new measure against the different provisions of the ATC on the basis of the information available to it \[…\], the TMB concluded that the measure agreed upon by Turkey and the United States, affecting imports by the United States of category 352/652 products, had not been demonstrated to be in conformity with the provisions of the ATC。[2]土耳其的进口数量限制措施因而被认定为属于“新采取的限制措施”。
ATC的另一项有效措施是对有关产品在10年内分四个阶段取消进口数量配额限制:第一阶段从1995年1月1日到1997年12月31日,各成员方在1995年1月1日取消进口配额数量限制的产品比例不得少于1990年其进口附件所列产品总量的16%;第二阶段从1998年1月1日到2001年12月31日,各成员方在1998年1月1日取消进口配额数量限制的产品比例不得少于1990年其进口附件所列产品总量的17%;第三阶段从2002年1月1日到2004年12月31日,各成员方在2001年1月1日取消进口配额数量限制的产品比例不得少于1990年其进口附件所列产品总量的18%;第四阶段为自2005年1月1日起取消所有剩余产品的配额限制,ATC自动终止。
对于尚未取消数量限制的产品,ATC规定要逐步放宽限制,增加配额数量,分四个阶段达到最终取消配额的目的。
(二)过渡性保障措施
过渡性保障措施是ATC的主要内容之一,同时也是ATC制定过程中分歧最大的问题之一。[3]根据ATC第6条的规定,如果某项纺织品和服装进口大量增加,对进口方国内同类产品或直接竞争产品的产业造成严重损害或严重损害的实际威胁,则进口成员方可以对出口该种产品的特定成员方实施过渡保障措施。过渡保障措施与《保障措施协定》中的保障措施的区别在于,前者针对的是特定成员方而非所有进口产品。[4] The Member proposing to take safeguard action shall seek consultations with the Member or Members which would be affected by such action. The request for consultations shall be accompanied by specific and relevant factual information, as up-to-date as possible, particularly in regard to: (a) the factors, referred to in paragraph 3, on which the Member invoking the action has based its determination of the existence of serious damage or actual threat thereof; and (b) the factors, referred to in paragraph 4, on the basis of which it proposes to invoke the safeguard action with respect to the Member or Members concerned. In respect of requests made under this paragraph, the information shall be related, as closely as possible, to identifiable segments of production and to the reference period set out in paragraph 8. The Member invoking the action shall also indicate the specific level at which imports of the product in question from the Member or Members concerned are proposed to be restrained; such level shall not be lower than the level referred to in paragraph 8. The Member seeking consultations shall, at the same time, communicate to the Chairman of the TMB the request for consultations, including all the relevant factual data outlined in paragraphs 3 and 4, together with the proposed restraint level. The Chairman shall inform the members of the TMB of the request for consultations, indicating the requesting Member, the product in question and the Member having received the request. The Member or Members concerned shall respond to this request promptly and the consultations shall be held without delay and normally be completed within 60 days of the date on which the request was received.
(三)反规避措施
与反倾销领域中所可能发生的情况相同,纺织品和服装进口时也会发生规避成员方法律、法规的情况,因此ATC制定了一套反规避措施(anti-circumvention measures)。根据相关规定,各成员同意转运、改道、谎报原产国或原产地、伪造正式文件等规避行为会阻挠旨在将纺织品和服装部门纳入1994年关贸总协定的本协议的执行。因此,各成员应制定必要的法律规定和/或行政程序来处理此类舞弊,并对其采取行动。各成员还同意在符合其国内法律和程序的情况下,各成员将进行充分的合作来处理因规避而引起的问题。
三、中国关于纺织品和服装贸易的特殊义务
纺织品和服装的出口对于中国的外贸具有非常重要的作用,在中国加入WTO的谈判过程中,纺织品就是谈判相持不下的焦点之一。中国得以最终加入WTO的重要原因,就在于在纺织品领域作出了极大让步并接受了许多苛刻的标准。
(一)纺织品特殊保障措施
根据《中国加入世界贸易组织工作组报告》(Report of the Working Party on the Accession of China)第242段(a)款的规定,In the event that a WTO Member believed that imports of Chinese origin of textiles and apparel products covered by the ATC as of the date the WTO Agreement entered into force, were, due to market disruption, threatening to impede the orderly development of trade in these products, such Member could request consultations with China with a view to easing or avoiding such market disruption. The Member requesting consultations would provide China, at the time of the request, with a detailed factual statement of reasons and justifications for its request for consultations with current data which, in the view of the requesting Member, showed: (1)the existence or threat of market disruption; and(2)the role of products of Chinese origin in that disruption.
根据第242段的其他规定,纺织品特殊保障措施的形式应仅限于数量限制一种,措施的适用期限最长为1年,且不得跨自然年度适用。具体而言,根据该款的规定若提出磋商的请求在10月1日前,则只能适用到该年度的12月31日;若提出磋商的请求在10月1日后,则可以获得12个月的适用期限。此外,该措施不得反复适用。不得根据本规定和《中国加入世界贸易组织议定书》第16条的规定对同一产品同时适用措施。任一WTO成员方不得根据两条款对同一产品同时适用两种特保措施,但不排除这两种措施的先后适用。
(二)特定产品的过渡性保障措施机制
这里的特定产品过渡性保障措施机制是根据《中国加入世界贸易组织议定书》(Protocol on the Accession of the People's Republic of China,以下简称《加入议定书》)的规定,由中国所承担的高于WTO协议要求的义务。根据《加入议定书》第16条第1款,In cases where products of Chinese origin are being imported into the territory of WTO Member in such increased quantities or under such conditions as to cause or threaten to cause market disruption to the domestic producers of like or directly competitive products,the WTO Member so affected may request consultations with China with a view to seeking a mutually satisfactory solution,including whether the affected WTO Member should purse application of a measure under the Agreement on Safeguards. Any such request shall be notified immediately to the Committee on Safeguards.
特定产品过渡性保障机制是专门针对中国产品的一种贸易救济措施,相比《保障措施协议》中所规定的保障措施而言,特定产品过渡性保障措施机制有着以下的特点:第一,实施特定产品过渡性保障措施的标准是《反倾销协议》中的“实质性损害”(material injury)而非《保障措施协议》中的“严重损害”(serious injury),而“实质性损害”的要求比“严重损害”的要求要低得多;第二,《加入议定书》中的“市场扰乱”(market disruption)比GATT第19条的“市场扰乱”要求也要低得多,只要求考虑客观因素,包括进口数量、进口产品对相同或竞争产品在价格上的影响,以及该进口产品对生产相同或直接竞争产品的国内行业的影响;[5]第三,特定产品过渡性保障措施可以选择性地实施,即只针对来自中国的产品实施,这显然与WTO非歧视原则是背道而驰的。
由此可见,中国加入世界贸易组织后,在纺织品和服装领域中承担了大量高于WTO协议的义务,许多WTO成员方据此多次对中国的纺织品实施进口限制措施,这给中国纺织品的出口造成了极大的障碍。在ATC业已终止的情况下,中国应该充分利用普惠制以及世界贸易组织争端解决机制,同时争取在新一轮的多边谈判中制定有利于自身的规则,以抵消这些超出WTO义务的不利影响。
[1] 孔庆江:《中国纺织品贸易的法律环境》,北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005,第28页。
[2] G/TMB/R/60, para. 33.
[3] 孔庆江:《中国纺织品贸易的法律环境》,北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005,第72页。
[4] 曹建明、贺小勇:《世界贸易组织法》,北京,法律出版社,2004,第224页。
[5] 孔庆江:《中国纺织品贸易的法律环境》,北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005,第126~127页。