一、WTO的组织机构
（一）部长级会议
There shall be a Ministerial Conference composed of representatives of all the Members, which shall meet at least once every two years.The Ministerial Conference shall carry out the functions of the WTO and take actions necessary to this effect.The Ministerial Conference shall have the authority to take decisions on all matters under any of the Multilateral Trade Agreements, if so requested by a Member, in accordance with the specific requirements for decision-making in this Agreement and in the relevant Multilateral Trade Agreement.[1]
部长级会议是WTO的最高决策机构，由WTO的所有成员组成，至少每两年举行一次会议。部长级会议全面履行WTO的职能，并可以为此采取任何必要的行动。应成员方要求部长级会议有权依照《WTO协定》和有关多边贸易协定中关于决策的具体要求，对任何多边贸易协定项下的所有事项作出决定。具体而言，其职能有：
（1）设立贸易与发展委员会、国际收支限制委员会及预算、财务与行政委员会等；
（2）任命总干事并确定其权力、责任、任职条件和任期以及秘书处工作人员的职责和任职条件；
（3）对《WTO协定》和多边贸易协定作出解释；
（4）豁免某成员方对《WTO协定》和多边贸易协定所承担的义务，并对超过一年的豁免按规定进行审议，决定对豁免的延长、修改和终止；
（5）审议成员方对《WTO协定》和多边贸易协定提出的修改方案；
（6）决定将某一贸易协定补充进诸边协定或将某一协定从诸边协定中删除；
（7）决定加入WTO的国家和地区；
（8）审议互不适用多边贸易协定的执行情况并提出适当的建议；
（9）决定《WTO协定》和多边贸易协定的生效日期，作出这些协定经过两年生效后可继续开放接受的决定。
截至目前，WTO已经在新加坡（1996）、瑞士日内瓦（1998）、美国的西雅图（1999）、卡塔尔多哈（2001）、墨西哥坎昆（2003）、中国香港（2005）、瑞士日内瓦（2009）和瑞士日内瓦（2011）召开了八次部长级会议。第九次部长级会议将于2013年12月3-6日在印度尼西亚的巴厘岛举行。
（二）总理事会
There shall be a General Council composed of representatives of all the Members, which shall meet as appropriate.In the intervals between meetings of the Ministerial Conference, its functions shall be conducted by the General Council.The General Council shall also carry out the functions assigned to it by this Agreement.The General Council shall establish its rules of procedure and approve the rules of procedure for the Committees provided for in paragraph 7.
The General Council shall convene as appropriate to discharge the responsibilities of the Dispute Settlement Body provided for in the Dispute Settlement Understanding.The Dispute Settlement Body may have its own chairman and shall establish such rules of procedure as it deems necessary for the fulfilment of those responsibilities.
The General Council shall convene as appropriate to discharge the responsibilities of the Trade Policy Review Body provided for in the TPRM.The Trade Policy Review Body may have its own chairman and shall establish such rules of procedure as it deems necessary for the fulfilment of those responsibilities. [2]
总理事会是WTO的常设机构和执行机关，由WTO全体成员方代表组成，通常每年大约举行六次会议。在部长级会议休会期间，总理事会监督WTO各方面的工作，同时处理最重要的紧急事务。除了履行行政职能外，总理事会还有两项具体的职能。一是作为争端解决机构（Dispute Settlement Body）管理附件2的运行；二是作为贸易政策审议机构（Trade Policy Review Body）管理附件3的运行。
为了充分、有效地履行其职能，总理事会还下设三类分支机构。第一类是负责WTO具体运作的，主要包括处理相关领域事务的货物贸易理事会、服务贸易理事会和与贸易有关的知识产权理事会。第二类是负责跨部门业务的有关功能的委员会。第三类主要是处理诸边协议的委员会。
2001年在多哈部长级会议上通过了《多哈发展议程》，为了方便该议程的实施，总理事会下设了专门的贸易谈判委员会及相关机构。
（三）货物贸易、服务贸易和与贸易有关的知识产权理事会
There shall be a Council for Trade in Goods, a Council for Trade in Services and a Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights （hereinafter referred to as the “Council for TRIPS”）, which shall operate under the general guidance of the General Council. The Council for Trade in Goods shall oversee the functioning of the Multilateral Trade Agreements in Annex 1A.The Council for Trade in Services shall oversee the functioning of the General Agreement on Trade in Services （hereinafter referred to as “GATS”）.The Council for TRIPS shall oversee the functioning of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights （hereinafter referred to as the “Agreement on TRIPS”）.These Councils shall carry out the functions assigned to them by their respective agreements and by the General Council. They shall establish their respective rules of procedure subject to the approval of the General Council. Membership in these Councils shall be open to representatives of all Members.These Councils shall meet as necessary to carry out their functions.
The Council for Trade in Goods, the Council for Trade in Services and the Council for TRIPS shall establish subsidiary bodies as required. These subsidiary bodies shall establish their respective rules of procedure subject to the approval of their respective Councils. [3]
三个附属理事会都在总理事会的指导下开展工作，负责监督货物贸易多边协定、服务贸易多边协定和与贸易有关的知识产权协定的执行。每个理事会都应当建立起相应的程序规则，这些规则要经过总理事会的批准。每个理事会都应当向所有的成员开放。理事会可以在需要的时候召开会议。另外，各理事会在必要时还可设立附属机构。
目前，货物贸易理事会下设的附属机构有：市场准入委员会、农产品委员会、卫生与植物检疫措施委员会、与贸易有关的投资措施委员会、原产地规则委员会、补贴与反补贴措施委员会、海关估价委员会、技术贸易壁垒委员会、反倾销措施委员会、进口许可证委员会和保障措施委员会，另外还设有一个国营贸易公司工作组。[4]为了方便1997年通过的《信息技术协定的》[5]（Information Technology Agreement）的实施，货物贸易理事会还建立了信息技术协定委员会。服务贸易理事会下设的附属机构有：金融服务贸易委员会、具体承诺委员会和国内管理措施工作组、服务贸易总协定规则工作组。与贸易有关的知识产权理事会目前虽然没有设立下属机构，但在需要时可以随时设立。
（四）委员会
The Ministerial Conference shall establish a Committee on Trade and Development, a Committee on Balance-of-Payments Restrictions and a Committee on Budget, Finance and Administration, which shall carry out the functions assigned to them by this Agreement and by the Multilateral Trade Agreements, and any additional functions assigned to them by the General Council, and may establish such additional Committees with such functions as it may deem appropriate. As part of its functions, the Committee on Trade and Development shall periodically review the special provisions in the Multilateral Trade Agreements in favour of the least-developed country Members and report to the General Council for appropriate action. Membership in these Committees shall be open to representatives of all Members.
The bodies provided for under the Plurilateral Trade Agreements shall carry out the functions assigned to them under those Agreements and shall operate within the institutional framework of the WTO. These bodies shall keep the General Council informed of their activities on a regular basis.[6]
此处的委员会（Committees）主要是指总理事会下的第二类分支机构和第三类分支机构。
第二类分支机构是部长级会议设立的向总理事负责的委员会，包括贸易与环境委员会、贸易与发展委员会、国际收支限制委员会与预算、财务与行政委员会。1996年还设立了区域贸易协定委员会。另外，在贸易发展委员会下还设立了一个最不发达国家分委员会对有利于最不发达国家的特殊条款进行审议。这些常设委员会负责履行《WTO协定》和多边贸易协定赋予的各项职能，它们向所有WTO成员方开放。
第三类分支机构包括根据《民用航空器贸易协定》和《政府采购协定》设立的民用航空器委员会和政府采购委员会，负责监督实施相应的诸边协定。这两个委员会仅对签署方开放。虽然不是总理事会的附属机构，但它们需定期向总理事会报告其活动。
（五）秘书机构
The Secretariat
There shall be a Secretariat of the WTO （hereinafter referred to as “the Secretariat”） headed by a Director-General.
The Ministerial Conference shall appoint the Director-General and adopt regulations setting out the powers, duties, conditions of service and term of office of the Director-General.
The Director-General shall appoint the members of the staff of the Secretariat and determine their duties and conditions of service in accordance with regulations adopted by the Ministerial Conference.
The responsibilities of the Director-General and of the staff of the Secretariat shall be exclusively international in character. In the discharge of their duties, the Director-General and the staff of the Secretariat shall not seek or accept instructions from any government or any other authority external to the WTO. They shall refrain from any action which might adversely reflect on their position as international officials.The Members of the WTO shall respect the international character of the responsibilities of the Director-General and of the staff of the Secretariat and shall not seek to influence them in the discharge of their duties.[7]
《WTO协定》第6条对常设性秘书机构的设立进行了规定。WTO的秘书机构分为两个部分：秘书处（Secretariat）和总干事（Director-General）。总干事是由部长级会议任命的；总干事根据部长级会议通过的条例，任命工作人员并确定他们的职责和服务条件。总干事和工作人员都按照国际职员的传统角色履行职责，不得接受WTO之外任何政府或任何其他权利机关的指示。WTO秘书处的主要工作人员是前GATT的职员，还包括为满足WTO更多工作需要而招募的人员。
总干事是WTO秘书处的首脑，除了任命工作人员外，还向预算、财政与行政委员会提出WTO的年度预算和财务报告。虽然《WTO协定》对总干事的职权并未作非常具体的规定，但总干事对WTO工作的实际影响是很大的，他可以最大限度地向各成员方施加影响，要求它们遵守WTO的各项规则；可以参与调解多边贸易争端；是每一轮多边贸易谈判的当然主席。
秘书处主要是为WTO的各种常设机构提供日常服务，如为WTO的各种会议提供会务安排，出版秘书处各种文件等。秘书处的经济学家对贸易实绩和贸易政策进行分析；法律专家们起草文件，协助组织会议和谈判，向代表团提供法律咨询，并在涉及WTO规则、程序和先例解释的贸易争端中提供帮助。
二、WTO的运行机制
（一）WTO的加入和退出
1.创始成员方
Original Membership
The contracting parties to GATT 1947 as of the date of entry into force of this Agreement, and the European Communities, which accept this Agreement and the Multilateral Trade Agreements and for which Schedules of Concessions and Commitments are annexed to GATT 1994 and for which Schedules of Specific Commitments are annexed to GATS shall become original Members of the WTO.
The least-developed countries recognized as such by the United Nations will only be required to undertake commitments and concessions to the extent consistent with their individual development, financial and trade needs or their administrative and institutional capabilities.[8]
创始成员是指在1995年1月1日WTO成立之前的GATT缔约方，它们已经接受《WTO协定》和多边贸易协定，并在货物贸易和服务贸易方面作出各方接受的减让和承诺。创始成员无需再经过加入程序，只要满足上述条件即可。这样的规定使全体创始成员都必须无保留地接受《WTO协定》和多边贸易协议，保证了WTO框架下的权利和义务得以全面履行。
WTO对创始成员中的最不发达国家规定了单独的基本要求，它们只需承担与其各自发展、财政和贸易需要或其管理和机构能力相符的承诺和减让。
除部长级会议另有规定外，有资格成为创始成员方的国家和地区必须在WTO成立后两年前，即1997年1月1日前提出申请。事实表明，所有有资格的国家和地区都在此期限内提出了申请，并加入了WTO。最后一个加入的是刚果共和国，于1997年3月27日成为WTO的第137个成员。
2.加入
Accession
Any State or separate customs territory possessing full autonomy in the conduct of its external commercial relations and of the other matters provided for in this Agreement and the Multilateral Trade Agreements may accede to this Agreement, on terms to be agreed between it and the WTO. Such accession shall apply to this Agreement and the Multilateral Trade Agreements annexed thereto.
Decisions on accession shall be taken by the Ministerial Conference. The Ministerial Conference shall approve the agreement on the terms of accession by a two-thirds majority of the Members of the WTO.
Accession to a Plurilateral Trade Agreement shall be governed by the provisions of that Agreement.
1997年1月1日后，成为WTO成员的主要方式是加入，其程序分为以下四步。
第一，申请的提出与审议。通常，申请加入WTO的国家或地区先要获得观察员身份，可以参加WTO的各项会议，但没有表决权。正式申请加入时，申请方书面致函WTO总干事，然后由秘书处负责将申请函散发给全体成员方，并将申请列入总理事会议程，成立加入工作组。申请方随即在秘书处的帮助下，准备加入备忘录，详细介绍申请方的外贸体制、法律、法规及其国际贸易、服务贸易和知识产权方面的经济政策。加入备忘录由秘书处散发给WTO各成员，作为成员了解申请方的依据。加入工作组则以备忘录为依据，对申请方的贸易体制进行审议，以确定申请者的贸易体制是否符合WTO的基本原则与规则。
第二，双边谈判。当工作组与申请方就备忘录内容的探讨、各成员对加入申请的询问等取得一定程度的进展时，申请方开始与各成员方进行双边的准入谈判，以达成货物贸易的关税减让、服务贸易的具体承诺等方面的减让表和承诺表。
第三，起草加入文件、进行多边表决。当工作组完成了对申请者贸易体制的审议，同时双边谈判也基本结束后，工作组便可着手起草加入文件。工作组起草的最终加入条件由“加入议定书”、“工作组报告”和“减让表”三个部分组成。在工作组的最后一次会议上，工作组协商一致通过上述文件，随后提交部长级会议或总理事会进行审议。
部长级会议或总理事会收到加入文件后，对其进行表决，若得到全体成员方2/3的多数表决通过，申请方即可签署加入议定书。
第四，生效。议定书的生效往往需要申请方的立法机关（国会）批准，例如中国由全国人大常委会批准。在WTO接到申请方表示接受的文件之日起第30天，有关加入文件生效，申请方正式加入WTO。
3.互不适用及退出
Non-Application of Multilateral Trade Agreements between Particular Members
This Agreement and the Multilateral Trade Agreements in Annexes 1 and 2 shall not apply as between any Member and any other Member if either of the Members, at the time either becomes a Member, does not consent to such application.
Paragraph 1 may be invoked between original Members of the WTO which were contracting parties to GATT 1947 only where Article ⅩⅩⅩⅤ of that Agreement had been invoked earlier and was effective as between those contracting parties at the time of entry into force for them of this Agreement.
Paragraph 1 shall apply between a Member and another Member which has acceded under Article ⅩⅡ only if the Member not consenting to the application has so notified the Ministerial Conference before the approval of the agreement on the terms of accession by the Ministerial Conference.
The Ministerial Conference may review the operation of this Article in particular cases at the request of any Member and make appropriate recommendations.
Non-application of a Plurilateral Trade Agreement between parties to that Agreement shall be governed by the provisions of that Agreement.[9]
Withdrawal
Any Member may withdraw from this Agreement. Such withdrawal shall apply both to this Agreement and the Multilateral Trade Agreements and shall take effect upon the expiration of six months from the date on which written notice of withdrawal is received by the Director-General of the WTO.
Withdrawal from a Plurilateral Trade Agreement shall be governed by the provisions of that Agreement.[10]
由于政治或其他原因，某些国家可能不希望在它们之间适用WTO的有关规定，《WTO协定》第13条对此问题进行了规定。一般来说，成员方间“互不适用”，以一方加入时明确声明为前提。然而，任何一GATT缔约方不能针对另一缔约方援引这一“互不适用”条款，除非它已经援引了GATT的相关条款（GATT第35条）。这一规定保证了GATT向WTO的过渡不被用作引入新的贸易限制的机会。[11]
任何WTO成员可以退出WTO，但退出适用于所有多边贸易协议和《WTO协定》本身，而且只能在递交书面退出申请的6个月后才能生效。
（二）WTO的决策机制
Decision-Making[12]
The WTO shall continue the practice of decision-making by consensus followed under GATT 1947.[13] Except as otherwise provided, where a decision cannot be arrived at by consensus, the matter at issue shall be decided by voting. At meetings of the Ministerial Conference and the General Council, each Member of the WTO shall have one vote. Where the European Communities exercise their right to vote, they shall have a number of votes equal to the number of their member States[14] which are Members of the WTO. Decisions of the Ministerial Conference and the General Council shall be taken by a majority of the votes cast, unless otherwise provided in this Agreement or in the relevant Multilateral Trade Agreement.[15]
The Ministerial Conference and the General Council shall have the exclusive authority to adopt interpretations of this Agreement and of the Multilateral Trade Agreements. In the case of an interpretation of a Multilateral Trade Agreement in Annex 1, they shall exercise their authority on the basis of a recommendation by the Council overseeing the functioning of that Agreement. The decision to adopt an interpretation shall be taken by a three-fourths majority of the Members. This paragraph shall not be used in a manner that would undermine the amendment provisions in Article Ⅹ.
In exceptional circumstances, the Ministerial Conference may decide to waive an obligation imposed on a Member by this Agreement or any of the Multilateral Trade Agreements, provided that any such decision shall be taken by three fourths[16] of the Members unless otherwise provided for in this paragraph.
（a）A request for a waiver concerning this Agreement shall be submitted to the Ministerial Conference for consideration pursuant to the practice of decision-making by consensus. The Ministerial Conference shall establish a time-period, which shall not exceed 90 days, to consider the request. If consensus is not reached during the time-period, any decision to grant a waiver shall be taken by three fourths of the Members.
（b）A request for a waiver concerning the Multilateral Trade Agreements in Annexes 1A or 1B or 1C and their annexes shall be submitted initially to the Council for Trade in Goods, the Council for Trade in Services or the Council for TRIPS, respectively, for consideration during a time-period which shall not exceed 90 days. At the end of the time-period, the relevant Council shall submit a report to the Ministerial Conference.
A decision by the Ministerial Conference granting a waiver shall state the exceptional circumstances justifying the decision, the terms and conditions governing the application of the waiver, and the date on which the waiver shall terminate. Any waiver granted for a period of more than one year shall be reviewed by the Ministerial Conference not later than one year after it is granted, and thereafter annually until the waiver terminates. In each review, the Ministerial Conference shall examine whether the exceptional circumstances justifying the waiver still exist and whether the terms and conditions attached to the waiver have been met.The Ministerial Conference, on the basis of the annual review, may extend, modify or terminate the waiver.
Decisions under a Plurilateral Trade Agreement, including any decisions on interpretations and waivers, shall be governed by the provisions of that Agreement.
1.协商一致
WTO继续实行GATT 1947所遵循的“协商一致”作出决议的惯例。GATT中很少进行投票，传统做法是所讨论事项已经基本形成所有国家支持的协议时才作出决定。“协商一致”主要是指只要出席会议的成员中没有对决议的通过表示正式的反对，就视为该决议已协商一致通过。对于“协商一致”我们应作如下理解：“第一，缺席或未出席会议不计在内；第二，弃权或者不表明态度保持沉默者，无碍于达成共识；第三，必须正式提出反对，私下摇头或不满均不计入。”[17]
2.投票
一般情况下，WTO下的决议不通过投票作出，但也存在需要正式投票的情形。若进行正式投票，WTO实行一员一票制。
（1）条文解释。《WTO协定》及其多边贸易协议所有协定条款及文件内容的解释，只能由部长级会议及总理事会作出。对于附件1项下的各协定，由相关理事会提出解释意见后，经由全体成员方3/4多数票决定。《WTO协定》关于修正程序的规定不受此限制。
（2）条文的修正。WTO的任一成员或理事会，可以向部长级会议提出对《WTO协定》和附件1中多边贸易协定的修改建议。如果部长级会议不能就条文修正建议达成一致，则须经2/3的全体WTO成员方同意方可将修正议案提交审议。
若修正议案不影响任何成员的权利和义务，则经WTO成员的2/3同意即生效。若修正议案的内容影响了某个或某些成员的权利和义务，修改内容只对接受修改的成员有效，此情形下，经3/4以上成员决议，可以同意不接受修正内容的成员退出WTO，或经部长级会议同意这些成员不接受修正的内容。
协定对GATS的部分内容规定了特殊的修正程序，只需2/3的成员同意即对全体成员生效。未列入特殊规定程序的部分仍按上述规定的修正程序进行修正。
此外，有关《WTO协定》第9条（决策机制）、第10条（修正），GATT第1条（最惠国待遇）、第2条（关税减让表），GATS第2条第1款和TRIPS第4条（两协定有关最惠国待遇的规定）的修正需全体成员一致通过。
特别的修正程序还包括对附件2和附件3的修正。对于附件2的修正由部长级会议单独决定，无须经成员同意，但是部长级会议的决定必须协商一致达成。对于附件3的修正也是由部长级会议单独决定，无须成员同意，但不要求部长级会议对修正意见协商一致。
（3）义务豁免。在例外情况下，部长级会议可以对成员方《WTO协定》和多边贸易协定项下的义务进行豁免。这些义务的豁免需经WTO 3/4以上的成员同意。豁免请求需先向各相关理事会提出，再由理事会向部长级会议报告。
【复习思考题】
1.多边贸易管制的必要性。
2.多边贸易管制的历史发展。
3.世界贸易组织的法律体系。
4.WTO部长级会议的职能。
5.WTO的机构设置和法律地位。
[1] Article Ⅳ of Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization.
[2] Article Ⅳ of Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization.
[3] Article Ⅳ of Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization.
[4] 临时性的机构通常被称为工作组（working party）。
[5] 该协定为诸边协定。
[6] Article Ⅳ of Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization.
[7] Article Ⅵ of Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization.
[8] Article Ⅺ of Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization.
[9] Article ⅩⅢ of Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization.
[10] Article Ⅸ of Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization.
[11] 世界贸易组织秘书处编：《乌拉圭回合协议导读》，索必成、胡盈之译，北京，法律出版社，2000，第19～20页。
[12] Article ⅩⅤ of Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization.
[13] The body concerned shall be deemed to have decided by consensus on a matter submitted for its consideration, if no Member, present at the meeting when the decision is taken, formally objects to the proposed decision.
[14] The number of votes of the European Communities and their member States shall in no case exceed the number of the member States of the European Communities.
[15] Decisions by the General Council when convened as the Dispute Settlement Body shall be taken only in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 4 of Article 2 of the Dispute Settlement Understanding.
[16] A decision to grant a waiver in respect of any obligation subject to a transition period or a period for staged implementation that the requesting Member has not performed by the end of the relevant period shall be taken only by consensus.
[17] 赵维田：《世贸组织（WTO）的法律制度》，长春，吉林人民出版社，2000，第37页。