总而言之，关于儿童英语阅读学习的研究总体上强调了语音意识的长期重要性和RAN的限时重要性；而儿童在一致性更强的正字法语言的阅读学习研究中，总体上强调了RAN的长期重要性和语音意识的限时重要性。尽管这些研究结果可能真实反映了阅读习得过程在不同程度上对潜在认知过程的依赖，但是它们都明显地存在着方法学方面的问题，可能会对上述结论起到损害作用。

第一，有学者指出，在一致性正字法语言中，语音意识的时限性影响很可能源于研究者选择了不同的测量语音意识的方法（Caravolas et al.，2005）。他们提出，通过难度较大的试验任务测量语音意识时，可以在年龄较大的儿童身上检测到语音意识对阅读能力的显著作用。在对2～5年级的正常发展儿童组（捷克语样本）和2～7年级的正常发展儿童组（英语样本）进行的考察中（Caravolas et al.，2005），检验一致性正字法语言（捷克语）和非一致性正字法语言（英语）中语音意识对阅读和拼写的作用。通过因素删除和首音误置任务，研究发现语音意识在捷克语和英语当中都是一个显著的影响因素。

第二，语音意识能力预测的差异可能部分源于阅读能力评估方法的不同。英语人群的研究主要关注阅读准确性，而正字法规则一致的语言研究（儿童可以在早期取得很高的水平）则主要关注个人阅读速度方面的差异。

第三，不同跨语言研究中使用的RAN任务类型（字母—数字型或非字母—数字型）会对研究结果产生影响。对幼儿园学生的研究普遍避免使用字母—数字型的RAN任务，因为北美和欧洲的儿童不熟悉字母和数字（例如，de Jong & van der Leij，1999；Georgiou et al.，2006；Papadopoulos et al.，2009；Parrila et al.，2004）。然而，比起字母—数字型任务，非字母—数字型的RAN任务与阅读的相关性没那么强（Araújo et al.，in press；Song et al.，2015）。与此相反，中国幼儿园儿童研究主要使用数字RAN，并证明RAN对儿童将来的阅读有显著的预测作用（例如，Li et al.，2012；McBride-Chang & Ho，2000；Tong，McBride-Chang，Shu，& Wong，2009；Wei et al.，2014；Yeung et al.，2011）。原因在于中国儿童3岁进入幼儿园，并且接受过大量的数字命名练习，汉语中的数字命名RAN比字母正字法语言中的RAN数字命名在自动化和速度方面的影响要大得多（Wei，Georgiou，& Deng，出版中）。因此，即便是在不同语言中使用了RAN数字任务（例如，McBride-Chang & Kail，2002），相同年龄儿童快速命名数字的自动化水平也是不同的。

第四，不同的研究者对于“什么样的语言可被称作一致性语言”的观点不同。这就导致了非优化对比，使得结果不能真实揭示正字法规则一致性不尽相同的语言之间的差异。比如，一项涉及各种正字法语言的元分析指出（Florit & Cain，2011），在正字法规则一致性不尽相同的语言中，再编码的预测价值和阅读理解中的语言理解有所不同。分析发现，对于阅读初学者来说，虽然其在一致性正字法语言中的听力理解比再编码对阅读理解的作用更大，但是在英语中再编码对阅读理解的影响更强，甚至在高年级学生中也是如此。但是在该研究中，除了英语之外，每一种语言都被归入“一致性”正字法组，这种分类是有问题的，因为法语或荷兰语的正字法规则与芬兰语、希腊语、意大利语或西班牙语是不一致的（Seymour et al.，2003）。比如，相对于芬兰语来说，法语更接近于英语。因此，将法语研究中的实验结果与芬兰语、希腊语或意大利语的结果相结合，而不与英语的研究结果相结合，很可能影响了研究者的结论。

最后，两项汉语研究给出了很好的例证，其结果可能部分源于统计分析中没有排除其他影响因素变量的情况下得出的（McBride-Chang et al.，2005；McBride-Chang & Kail，2002）。比如，语音意识在高效单词识别发展方面可能是一个必要条件，但不一定是充分条件（例如，Scarborough，1998；Share & Stanovich，1995）。尤其是在拼音文字语言中，研究更多地关注了正字法加工，即在加工书面或口头语时使用正字法信息的过程（Wagner & Barker，1994），并将其作为早期跨语言阅读发展的另一个潜在差异来源。

因此，人们自然会问，那么我们离阅读的普遍理论还有多远？本文清晰地展示出，目前存在的分歧比共识还要多。不同的语言、不同的被试年龄、不同的测量手段、不同的统计分析、考虑的加工技能的不同，都会得出各不相同的研究结果。比如，在没有控制RAN和字母知识作用的前提下，在一致性正字法中证明语音意识对学习阅读的重要性（例如，Caravolas et al.，2005；Rothou，Padeliadou，& Sideridis，2013），或是在没有控制语素意识作用的前提下，证明语音意识对汉语阅读的重要性（例如，McBride-Chang & Ho，2000；Tan，Spinks，Eden，Perfetti，& Siok，2005），这些做法并不能提高我们对特定语言的理解，以及对阅读的普遍影响因素的理解。本文还强调，在我们对不同语音加工技能（相似的讨论见Perfetti，Cao，& Booth，2013）的重要性做出任何结论之前，还要考虑非拼音正字法语言（如中文、日文）的情况。

总之，在多种因素和技能中，正字法深度只是可能会影响读写习得的一个维度，另外一个维度是不同正字法中表音符号集的大小（Nag，2014）。有研究者将大符号编制的正字法语言称为“延伸性正字法”，将有限符号编制的正字法称作“抑制性正字法”（Nag，2014）。例如，使用200～600个符号的印度语正字法是延伸性正字法，而只有24～41个字母的拼音正字法是抑制性正字法。由于学习延伸性正字法的符号集是个吃力、冗长的过程，且远远超过了小学教育水平（例如，Nag & Snowling，2012），那么至少该过程所使用的认知技能与那些学习抑制性正字法语言所使用的认知技能存在部分差异。

摘要Abstract

In this chapter, I review the literature in three groups of cross-linguistic studies: (1) those examining the predictors of reading and spelling in alphabetic orthographies varying in orthographic consistency, (2) those examining the predictors of reading and spelling in alphabetic orthographies and Chinese, and (3) those examining the predictors of reading and spelling in children learning two orthographies at the same time.The purpose is to identify common patterns in the relationship between phonological processing (phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and phonological short-term memory) and literacy skills across languages.Clearly, the findings in all three groups of studies are mixed.This suggests that we are far from a universal theory of literacy acquisition.Firm conclusions about the role of phonological processing skills on reading and spelling across languages cannot be drawn because of differences between studies in their design (some being longitudinal, some being concurrent or cross-sectional), differences between studies on the measures used to operationalize the constructs of interest, differences between studies in the age of the participants, and differences between studies in the languages included and the orthographic distance between each other.

Keywords

reading, spelling, cross-linguistic, psycholinguistic grain size theory, phonological processing, rapid naming, phonological awareness

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[1] 加拿大阿尔伯塔大学（University of Alberta）

[2] 一种强化随意“符号—声音”联结学习能力的措施。——编者注

[3] 谚文，是指朝鲜语的表音文字。——编者注

[4] 当用汉字，日本的国语实施措施之一。《当用汉字表》公布的1850个汉字，为现代日本国语中日常使用的汉字书写范围。——编者注