304.For details on the DES saga, see Dutton, D. B., 1988, op. cit.; Institute of Medicine, Drug Efficacy Study. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press, 1967; Henig, R. M., 1997, op. cit; Meyers,R., DES: The Bitter Pill. New York: Putnam, 1983; and Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations. House of Representatives.92nd Cong, lst Sess. November 11, 1971.
305.Herbst, A. L., UIlfelder, H., and Poskanzer, D. C.,“Adenocarcinoma of the vagina.” New England Journal of Medicine 284 (1971): 878-881.
306.到1998年,该公司只建议在两种情况下使用己烯雌酚:乳腺癌和前列腺癌的治疗,还特别警告说:“己烯雌酚不得以任何目的而用于孕妇,它的使用可能会对胎儿造成严重伤害。”
307.Dutton, D. B., Worse Than the Disease: Pitfalls of Medical Progress. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988。达顿指出:“己烯雌酚事件引发了许多大事件的讨论,比如关于医学在社会中的角色以及监管保障的局限性等。它揭示了一种根深蒂固的乐观主义模式,即医学科学在解决人们所认同的既定社会需求方面的益处,这种文化观点被医生、农民、科学家和女大学生等不同群体所认同。笼罩在己烯雌酚周围的乐观情绪亦是如此强烈,以至于人们几乎是故意无视大量的风险证据。”
食品药品监督管理局似乎也在对人工甜味剂的监管上有所欠缺。1969年,仅仅根据实验动物的研究,它发现甜蜜素是致癌物质,并禁止在美国销售。但在1977年,当面对实验室检测出的下一种大甜味剂糖精具有致癌性的更有力证据时,食品药品监督管理局回应了公众对这种非热量甜味剂的支持,并允许其继续在市场上销售。
308.Patterson, J. T, 1996, op. cit.
309.“Nixon proposals vs. ‘Health Security’: The issues shape up.” Hospital Practice (April 1971):22-38.
310.Fein, R., “What direction for national health insurance?” Hospital Practice (August 1970):67-72.
311.“Nixon proposals vs. ‘Health Security’: The issues shape up,” 1971, op. cit.
312.Starr, P., 1982, op. cit.
313.For a thumbnail history of HMOs, see Mayer, T. R. and Mayer, G. G., “HMOs: Origins and development.” New England Journal of Medicine 312 (1985): 590-594.
314.康涅狄格州民主党参议员阿伯·里比科夫和路易斯安那州保守派民主党人罗素·朗提出了1973年灾难性医疗保险和医疗援助重组法案。它得到了尼克松总统竞选对手、南达科他州民主党参议员乔治·麦戈文的支持。
315.医疗信贷计划,提供医疗保健券,让消费者可以到私人医生那里消费。
316.美国心脏病协会希望延长《希尔-伯顿法案》的有效期,并取消劳埃德-伯顿法案修正案的条款。这些规定要求受援国的医疗设施向贫困病人提供免费护理,这些病人至少占病人总数的5%。
317.Mayer, T. R. and Mayer, G. G., 1985, op. cit.
318.For a sense of the changes then under way see “Administration seeks to shift Medicare cuts to elderly.” Hospital Practice (March 1973): 182-187; “Auditing ambulatory care.” Hospital Practice (June 1974): 155-160; Gold, M. R. and Rosenberg, R. G., “Use of emergency room services by the population of a neighborhood health center.” Health Services Reports 89 (1974): 65-70; “Kennedy-Mills: A new pairing on the health insurance front.” Hospital Practice (June 1974): 176-184; etc..
319.Rogers, D. E. and Blendon, R. J., “The changing American health scene: Sometimes things get better.” Journal of the American Medical Association 237 (1977): 1710-1714.
320.As quoted in Baum, D., Smoke and Mirrors: The War on Drugs and the Politics of Failure.Boston: Little, Brown, 1996.
321.Ibid.
322.lbid.
323.National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse, Evaluating the Social Impact of Drug Dependence. Washington, D.C., 1972.
324.1989年,卡托研究所的詹姆斯·奥斯特洛夫斯基估计,自1969年以来,每年都有以下情况发生:
See: Duke, S. B. and Gross, A. C., 1993, op. cit.
对毒品使用率的不同估计表明,1955年海洛因使用者的人数约为5000人,1987年的总数为150万人。这些数字表明尼克松的禁毒战争政策已经彻底失败。参见Institute of Medicine, Treating Drug Problems. Vol. I. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1990。
325.Payne, L., Royce, K., Greene, B., et al., The Heroin Trail. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974.
326.Duke, S. B. and Gross, A. C., 1994, op. cit.
327.几乎没有数据支持这个想法。事实上,海洛因使用者并不比社会其他人更容易犯罪,而且往往比他们居住社区的其他成年人更不容易犯重罪。
328.最终,特别行动办公室与1973年成立的国家药物滥用研究所相衔接。
329.Massing, M, The Fix: Under the Nixon Administration America Had an Effective Drug Policy. WE SHOULD RESTORE IT. (Nixon Was Right). New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998.
330.由于作者和其他人在其他地方详细介绍了这些新出现的疾病问题,这里的介绍就没有这么深入。有关1960—1990年间传染病问题的更多信息,请查阅Biddle, W., A Field Guide to Germs. New York: Henry Holt, 1995; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC and the Smallpox Crusade. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1987; Fenner, F.,Hendersen, D. A., Arita, I., et al., Smallpox and Its Eradication. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1988;Foege, W. H., “Alexander D. Langmuir—his impact on public health.” American Journal of Epidemiology 144 (1996): S11-S15; Garrett, L., 1994, op. cit,; etc等。
331.This is, of course, described in greater detail in Chapter 2 of this book and in the chapter entitled “Yambuku” in Garrett, L., 1994, op. cit.
332.For more about smallpox eradication, see Chapter 5 of this book and the smallpox selections cited above.
333.Neustadt, R. E. and Fineberg, H. V., The Swine Flu Affair: Decision-Making on a Slippery Slope. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1978.
334.美国疾病预防控制中心无法知道1976年的病毒是否确实与1918年的病毒相似,因为他们没有这种旧病毒的样本可以用来与新的流感病毒样本相比较。但由于两种流感都在感染者体内引起了针对猪抗原的抗体反应,因此两者之间存在令人担忧的猪流感联系。专家认为由猪引起的流感病毒株对人类是最危险的。
335.格林-巴利综合征是一种人类对神经紊乱知之甚少的疾病,它会导致神经系统的炎症、瘫痪、疼痛和其他神经系统症状。没人知道格林-巴利综合征发生的原因,但通过检查成千上万的医疗记录发现一直有一定数量的人患该病,奥斯特霍尔姆确定,明尼苏达州疫苗接种者中患格林-巴利病的例数比拒绝接种流感疫苗的人相比稍多,其差别是每100万接种过疫苗的明尼苏达人会增加9.7例格林-巴利综合征病例。
336.See Bloom, B. R., “The United States needs a national vaccine authority.” Science 265(1994): 1377-1380; Citizens Against Government Waste, An Ounce of Prevention: Why Congress Should Repeal the Vaccines for Children Program. Washington, D.C.: Citizens Against Government Waste, 1994; Cohen, J., “Bumps on the vaccine road.” Science 265 (1994): 1371-1375; Douglas, G. R.,“The Children's Vaccine Initiative: Will it work?” Journal of Infectious Diseases 168 (1993): 269-274;Gibbons, A, “Children's Vaccine Initiative stumbles.” Science 265 (1994): 1376-1377; etc..
337.Hilleman, M., Presentation to the Institute of Medicine, October 6, 1995.
337.1987年,美国国家科学院召开了一次高层会议,讨论开发艾滋病病毒疫苗的战略。11年前的猪流感惨败的阴影笼罩着这次会议,科学家们争论如何完成一项看起来不可能完成的任务,即生产出一种安全的、百分之百有效的反转录病毒疫苗。
与索尔克在1950年对付小儿麻痹症的能力相比,1987年的遗传学和分子生物学能力要强得多。
默克制药公司的莫里斯·希勒曼说:“我相信你可以通过基因工程来改造任何东西。”“但谁会承担责任呢?谁能保证一种(病毒)疫苗不会在病人体内重组?这是法律问题。科学技术是好的,但提供安全的可能性是不可逾越的。”
339.流感是一种鸟类病毒,通常在迁徙的水禽身上发现。这种适应于禽类的病毒很少会传染给人类,而且就目前所知,它永远不会在人与人之间传播。人类流行病涉及一种中间物种,常见的中间物种是猪,禽流感在猪体内繁殖并变异成适合哺乳动物的形式。
340.对世界卫生组织、国家过敏症和传染病研究所(世界卫生组织、国立变态反应与传染病研究所)会议的评论,“大流行性流感:面对再次出现的威胁面对再次出现的威胁”,1995年12月11日至13日,马里兰州,贝塞斯达。
341.在1991年之前,美国军方自己就有一个庞大的流感监测网络,利用军队在偏远地区的部署对新出现的流感毒株进行采样。这是对世界卫生组织文职系统的有力补充。但在苏联解体后,国会下令对国防部进行了几轮预算削减。根据美国陆军的说法,到1999年,军事流感网络已经逐渐被淘汰,甚至是不复存在。
342.Meltzer, M. and Cox, N., Data presented at the First International Conference on Emerging Diseases, Atlanta, Georgia, March 8, 1998. Kolata, G. Flu. New York: Farrar, Straus Giroux, 1999.
343.Patriarca, P., Comments to the WHO/NIAID meeting, 1995, op. cit.
344.Dowdle, W., Comments to the WHO/NIAID meeting, 1995, op. cit.
345.This is described in greater detail in Garrett, L., 1994, op. cit.
346.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Summary of Notifiable Diseases, United States,1997. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC, 1997.
347.Carter, J., Keeping Faith: Memories of a President. New York: Bantam, 1982.
348.具体情况如下:凌晨4点,反应堆冷却系统的一台水泵关闭,反应堆继续满功率运转。这使得过热的水在系统中积聚,产生爆炸压力。一个自动压力释放器排出了放射性蒸汽并关闭了反应堆。在这种情况下,压力表没能关闭。放射性蒸汽和水继续从系统中涌出。备用冷却开关未能自动打开以抵消蒸汽压力,但控制面板读数错误,从而指示正在进行冷却。由于核心反应堆仍然过热,另一个应急系统向核心注入了冷却剂,但电厂工程师误解了情况,关闭了备用冷却器泵。蒸汽喷出,主燃料棒破裂。熔毁开始,放射性气体被排放到核电站外的空气中。
349.吉米·卡特的背景和能源危机进一步加剧了人们的怀疑。卡特在美国海军服役期间曾在一艘核潜艇上担任工程师,并支持核电工业。而持续的能源危机促使国会对核工业进行特别考虑。
350.Booth, W.,“Postmortem on Three Mile Island.” Science 238 (December 4, 1987); Del Tredici, R., The People of Three Mile Island. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1980; Gray, M., “What really happened at Three Mile Island.” Rolling Stone (May 17, 1979); May, J. Nuclear Age. New York:Pantheon Books, 1989; Stephens, M., Three Mile Island. New York: Junction Books, 1980; and Torrey, L.,“The week they almost lost Pennsylvania.” New Scientist (April 4, 1979).
351.美国长期盟友伊朗国王抵达美国接受治疗几天后,他在伊朗的统治被推翻,学生武装分子占领了美国大使馆,将所有工作人员扣为人质。以阿亚图拉·霍梅尼为代表的伊朗新政府全力支持学生运动,人质在1979年剩余时间和1980年全年都被囚禁在使馆内。1980年9月22日,萨达姆·侯赛因领导的伊拉克政府入侵伊朗,引发了20世纪最血腥的中东冲突。可能是因为这场战争让伊朗忙得不可开交,伊朗同意释放美国人质。在罗纳德·里根就职的那天,人质被释放了,以最后的羞辱姿态夺取了卡特的荣誉。
由于伊朗和伊拉克的紧张局势,石油定价和供应危机在卡特执政时期进一步恶化,最终导致了通货膨胀。
352.Carter, J., 1982, op. cit.
353.lbid.
354.Starr, P., 1982, op. cit.
355.“It's time to operate.” Fortune 81 (1970): 79.
356.Folland, S., Goodman, A. C., and Stano, M., The Economics of Health and Health Care.New York: Macmillan, 1993.
357.Feldman, R., “Competition among physicians, revisited.” Journal of Health, Politics, Policy and Law 13 (1988): 239-261; McMenamin, P., “A crime storm from Medicare Part B.” Health Affairs(Winter 1988): 94-101; and Rice, T. H., “The impact of changing Medicare reimbursement rates on physician-induced demand.” Medical Care 21 (1983): 803-815.
358.Cooper, B. and Rice, D., The Economic Cost of Illness Revisited. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Health Statistics, U.S. Public Health Service, HEW, 1976.
359.Source: Health Care Financing Administration.
360.Ibid.
361.多萝西·赖斯在1983年6月10日的一次采访中向我提供了一些资料。她的数据如下:
362.早在1970年,一些医院就开始向医疗保险公司和私人保险公司收取每天500美元的病房费。虽然这些都是重症监护病房,但在1970年,这笔钱可以在曼哈顿最豪华的酒店租下一整层楼,包括服务员和客房服务,还可以饱览中央公园的全景。
363.Krant, M. J., “The organized care of the dying patient.” Hospital Practice (January 1972):101-108. By 1965 nearly half of all deaths were occurring in hospitals, compared to a third in 1937.Scitovsky, A. A., “‘The high cost of dying’: What do the data show?” Milbank Quarterly 62 (1984):591-608. Within just two years of its enactment, the 5 percent of Medicare recipients who died were absorbing 22 percent of all the program's expenditures. Piro, P. A. and Lutins, T., “Utilization and reimbursement under Medicare for persons who died in 1967 and 1968.” Health Insurance Statistics.Pub. No. SSA-74-11702. Washington, .D.C: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, October 17, 1969. A 1978 study got similar results: 5.9 percent of the Medicare population, mostly terminally ill patients, that year absorbed 27.9 percent of the agency's health expenditures. Lubitz, J. and Prihoda, R.,“The use and costs of Medicare services in the last two years of life.” Health Care Financing Review 5(1984): 117-131.
364.“Can ‘health maintenance’ plan brake runaway Medi-costs?” Hospital Practice (May 1970):19-28.
365.Carter, J., 1982, op. cit.
366.哈佛大学公共卫生学院的经济学家威廉·萧表示,每年影响公众舆论和国会对卫生政策的支出总额约为1600万美元。这些钱来自那些拥有大量雇员参加医疗保险的大雇主(如IBM、通用汽车公司、通用电器公司等)、小企业组织、劳工组织、保险业、美国市场营销协会、美国医院协会和制药行业。
367.These were published by HEW as Objectives for the Nation (1979), The Surgeon General's Report on Health Promotion and Disease Prevention (1979), and Objectives for the Nation (1980).
368.The Valentine Brothers, “Money's Too Tight (to mention),” 1973. Adapted by Simply Red,1988. BMI.
369.McBeath, W. H., Opening remarks, annual meeting of the American Public Health Association. New York, October 1, 1990.
370.Reagan, R., Speaking My Mind. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989.
371.Center for Health Statistics, Health Data Summaries for California Counties 1980.Sacramento: Department of Health Services, State of California, 1981; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Motor-vehicle safety: A 20th century public health achievement.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48 (1999): 369-374.
372.1980年,共有119681例分娩和68018例堕胎,这意味着36%的怀孕被终止。虽然无法找到堕胎的种族分类,但总的来说,加州白人女性的堕胎率最高。
373.Janis, J. M. and Walker, A., “An approach to monitoring the health status of Los Angeles County residents.” Los Angeles: UCLA School of Public Health, April 1983; Center for Human Statistics,Health Data Summaries for California Counties. Sacramento: California State Department of Health. For the years 1960, 1970, 1980, 1982, 1983.
374.1980年,5.2%的白人婴儿出生时体重低于2500克(或5.5磅),12%的非裔美国婴儿出生时体重低于2500克(或5.5磅)。
375.U.S. Bureau of the Census, World Population Profile: 1994. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Department of Commerce, 1994.
376.洛杉矶将继续难以让孩子们充分接种疫苗。1982年,大约21%的幼儿园学生没有完全免疫。到1985年,这一数字下降到15.1%,这在很大程度上要归功于西班牙的大规模疫苗接种运动。1987年,只有大约11%的幼儿园儿童接种疫苗不足。
然后这个数字停滞不前,数年来一直保持在11%~12%的水平。
377.世界卫生组织,《1984年世界卫生报告》。日内瓦,世界卫生组织,1984年。
378.20年来,洛杉矶的淋病发病率一直高于全州其他地区和美国的其他州。到1980年,洛杉矶郡的淋病发病率为683.7/10万人。加州的是574.1/10万人。美国总体的发病率是443.3/10万人。梅毒发病率呈现出一种更为多变的趋势,但洛杉矶的梅毒发病率在过去20年里总体呈上升趋势,同时,其发病率一直高于加州和全国平均水平。
379.1979年,该郡获得了11亿美元的医疗保险资金(当年每个医疗保险客户平均为1552美元),每月处理了942486起医疗保险案件,向州政府开列约12亿美元。到1981年,该郡的医疗保险收入跃升至16亿美元,平均每人2175美元。加州医保报销15亿美元,平均每位客户3012美元。
380.在里根总统任期内,他的家乡加州作为最大的军事合同承接方而变得繁荣起来,平均年收入1000亿美元。到1983年,加州的国防合同总额将超过80亿美元,其中大部分支付给了洛杉矶郡的工人。
381.Savage, J. D., Balanced Budgets and American Politics. Ithaca: Cormell University Press,1988.
382.Reagan, R., 1989, op. cit.
383.Ginzberg, E., Tomorrow's Hospital: A Look to the Twenty-first Century. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.
384.Savage, J. D., 1988, op. cit.
385.部队为医学生提供了两种诱人的选择。那些在完成学业后签约在部队工作的人得到了联邦政府的医学教育补助,同时,学生在部队服役也是军队推迟征兵的理由。
386.Ambler, M., “Taking care of our own: Training Indians to heal Indians.” Tribal College 5(1994): 10-16.
387.Associated Press, “U.S. refines rules for Indian Service.” October 4, 1987.
388.United Press International, “Report tells of poor doctoring for the Indians.” October 7, 1987.
389.这在一定程度上代表了一种转变,因为越来越多的人去社区经营的诊所,而不是待在印第安人卫生服务体系的医院里。
390.1987年9月至11月,作者在新墨西哥州、亚利桑那州、洛杉矶和华盛顿特区对印第安人卫生服务体系和纳瓦霍族卫生专家进行了采访。
391.Cannon, L., President Reagan: The Role ofa Lifetime. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991.
392.有趣的是,在这些问题上,里根的做法与民意调查显示的明确的公众意见相反。例如,美国医学会发起的一项民意调查中问道:“如果政府减少对医疗卫生行业的监管,在你看来,医疗质量可能会发生什么变化?”两年多来的调查结果是:
更能说明问题的是美国人对国家医疗保险的看法。《纽约时报》和哥伦比亚广播公司进行了一项长达5年的民意调查:“你赞成还是反对:国家医疗保险由税收资助,并支付大多数种类的医疗卫生费用?”而他们的回答是:
See: Shapiro, R. Y. and Young, J. T., “The polls: Medical care in the United States.” Public Opinion Quarterly 50 (1986):418-428.
393.Nathan, R. P. and Omenn, G. S., “What's behind those block grants in health?” New England Journal of Medicine 306 (1982): 1057-1060; and Brooks, E. F., DeFriese, G. H., Miller, C. A., et al., “A survey of local public health departments and their directors.” American Journal of Public Health 67(1977): 931-939.
394.Miller, C. A., Brooks, E. F., DeFriese, G. H., et al., 1977, op. cit.
395.Association of State and Territorial Health Oficials, Inventory of Programs and Expenditures.Washington, D.C.: National Public Health Reporting System, HEW, for the years 1974, 1776, 1978,1980, 1981, and 1982.
396.Beyle, T. L. and Dusenbury, P. J., “Health and Human Services block grants: The state and local dimension.” State Government SSI (1982): 2-13.
397.DeFriese, G. H., Hetherington, J. S., Brooks, E. F., et al., “The program implications of administrative relationships between local health departments and state and local government.” American Journal of Public Health 71 (1981): 1109-1115; Gilbert, B., Moos, M. K., and Miller, C. A., “State-level decision making for public health: The status of boards of health.” Journal of Public Health Policy 3(1982) 51-61; Institute of Medicine, The Future of Public Health. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988; etc..
398.Iglehart, J. K., “Medical care of the poor—a growing health problem.” New England Journal of Medicine 313 (1985): 59-64.
399.Joe. T. C. W., “Arbitrary access to care: the case for reforming Medicaid eligibility.” Health Affairs 4 (1985): 59-74.
400.Ginzberg, E., 1996, op. cit.
401.Stevens, R., op. cit, 1999.
402.Ibid.
403.Mu?oz, E., Laughlin, A., Regan, D. M., et al., “The financial effects of emergency departmentgenerated admissions under prospective payment systems.” Journal of the American Medical Association 254 (1985): 1763-1771; Norton, E. C. and Staiger D. O.,“How hospital ownership affects access to care for the uninsured.” RAND Journal of Economics 25 (1994): 171-185; and Stern, R. S. and Epstein, A.M., “Institutional responses to prospective paymnent based on Diagnosis-Related Groups.” New England Journal of Medicine 312 (1985): 621-627.
404.Wennenberg, J. E., McPherson, K., and Caper, P., “Will payment based on Diagnosis-Related Groups control hospital costs?” New England Journal of Medicine 311 (1984): 295-300.
405.Dentzer, S., Hager, M., Zuckerman, S., et al,“Hospitals take the cure.” Newsweek (July 2,1984): 56-65.
406.斯蒂芬·肖特尔和爱德华·休斯集中研究了16种医保患者接受的常见手术(例如,**切除术、紧急心脏复苏术、冠状动脉搭桥手术和髋关节置换术),并观察了在全国不同医疗机构接受过这些手术的患者的死亡率。所有手术加起来,平均死亡率为11%;但在一些医疗机构中只有6.5%的死亡率,而在另外一些机构中,死亡率高达15.5%。研究发现,死亡率遵循地理格局,最高的死亡率出现在监管最少、竞争最激烈的医疗市场。
407.Wikler, D., “Who should be blamed for being sick?” Health Education Quarterly 14 (1987):11-25.
408.Davis, K. and Rowland, D., “Uninsured and underserved: inequalities in health care in the United States.” Milbank Quarterly 61 (1983): 149-176.