Thomas Hobbes

Pre-reading

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was one of the greatest English philosophers and political theorists, and one of the central figures of British empiricism. Hobbes studied at Oxford, where he learnt a contempt for the philosophy of Plato and, especially, Aristotle that stayed for life. After graduation, he joined the family of the Earls(later Dukes) of Devonshire as a tutor and traveled with his pupil in Europe, where he engaged Galileo in philosophical discussions on the nature of motion.

He later turned to political theory, but his support for absolutism put him at odds with the rising antiroyalist sentiment of the time. He fled to Paris in 1640, where he tutored the future King Charles Ⅱ of England. In Paris he wrote his best-known work, Leviathan(1651), in which he attempted to justify the absolute power of the sovereign on the basis of a hypothetical social contract in which individuals seek to protect themselves from one another by agreeing to obey the sovereign in all matters. Hobbes held that the greatest threat to human security was the anarchy of the “State of Nature”, and that to avoid that horrific condition, where life was “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”, and men must contract to establish a sovereign power with sufficient authority to enforce laws and maintain order.

Hobbes returned to Britain in 1651 after the death of Charles Ⅰ. In 1666 Parliament threatened to investigate him as an atheist. His works are considered important statements of the nascent ideas of liberalism as well as of the longstanding assumptions of absolutism characteristic of the times.

Prompts for Your Reading

1.What are the characteristics of the so-called political creatures?

2.What are the six differences between human beings and political creatures?

3.For what purposes does the author compare humans and political creatures?

4.What are the functions of the common power?

5.What is a Commonwealth?

6.Whom does the common power reside with in a Commonwealth?

7.Why do people have to give up some of their individual rights in a Commonwealth?

8.What are the two ways of attaining sovereign power?

9.What is called a Commonwealth by acquisition?

10.What is called a Commonwealth by institution?

[1] It is true that certain living creatures, as bees and ants, live sociably one with another (which are therefore by Aristotle2 numbered amongst political creatures), and yet have no other direction than their particular judgments and appetites; nor speech, whereby one of them can signify to another what he thinks expedient for the common benefit: and therefore some man may perhaps desire to know why mankind cannot do the same. To which I answer:

[2] Firstly, that men are continually in competition for honor and dignity, which these creatures are not; and consequently amongst men there ariseth on that ground, envy, and hatred, and finally war; but amongst these not so.

[3] Secondly, that amongst these creatures the common good differeth not from the private; and being by nature inclined to their private, they procure thereby the common benefit. But man, whose joy consisteth in comparing himself with other men, can relish nothing but what is eminent.

[4] Thirdly, that these creatures, having not, as man, the use of reason, do not see, nor think they see, any fault in the administration of their common business: whereas amongst men there are very many that think themselves wiser and abler to govern the public, better than the rest; and these strive to reform and innovate, one this way, another that way; and thereby bring it into distraction3 and civil war.

[5] Fourthly, that these creatures, though they have some use of voice in making known to one another their desires and other affections, yet they want that art of words by which some men can represent to others that which is good in the likeness of evil; and evil, in the likeness of good; and augment or diminish the apparent greatness of good and evil, discontenting men and troubling their peace at their pleasure.

[6] Fifthly, irrational creatures cannot distinguish between injury and damage; and therefore as long as they be at ease, they are not offended with their fellows, whereas man is then most troublesome when he is most at ease; for then it is that he loves to show his wisdom, and control the actions of them that govern the Commonwealth.

[7] Lastly, the agreement of these creatures is natural; that of men is by covenant4 only, which is artificial; and therefore it is no wonder if there be somewhat else required, besides covenant, to make their agreement constant and lasting, which is a common power to keep them in awe and to direct their actions to the common benefit.

[8] The only way to erect such a common power, as may be able to defend them from the invasion of foreigners, and the injuries of one another, and thereby to secure them in such sort as that by their own industry and by the fruits of the earth they may nourish themselves and live contentedly, is to confer all their power and strength upon one man, or upon one assembly of men, that may reduce all their wills, by plurality of voices, unto one will, which is as much as to say, to appoint one man, or assembly of men, to bear their person; and every one to own and acknowledge himself to be author of whatsoever he that so beareth their person shall act, or cause to be acted, in those things which concern the common peace and safety; and therein to submit their wills, every one to his will, and their judgments to his judgment. This is more than consent, or concord5; it is a real unity of them all in one and the same person, made by covenant of every man with every man, in such manner as if every man should say to every man: I authorize and give up my right of governing myself to this man, or to this assembly of men, on this condition, that thou give up thy right to him, and authorize all his actions in like manner. This done, the multitude so united in one person is called a COMMONWEALTH; in Latin, CIVITAS. This is the generation of that great LEVIATHAN6, or rather, to speak more reverently, of that Mortal God to which we owe, under the Immortal God, our peace and defense. For by this authority, given him by every particular man in the Commonwealth, he hath the use of so much power and strength conferred on him that, by terror thereof, he is enabled to form the wills of them all, to peace at home, and mutual aid against their enemies abroad. And in him consisteth the essence of the Commonwealth, which, to define it, is: one person, of whose acts a great multitude, by mutual covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the author, to the end he may use the strength and means of them all as he shall think expedient7 for their peace and common defense.

[9] And he that carryeth this person is called SOVEREIGN, and said to have Sovereign Power; and every one besides, his SUBJECT.

[10] The attaining to this sovereign power is by two ways. One, by natural force: as when a man maketh his children to submit themselves, and their children, to his government, as being able to destroy them if they refuse; or by war subdueth his enemies to his will, giving them their lives on that condition. The other, is when men agree amongst themselves to submit to some man, or assembly of men, voluntarily, on confidence to be protected by him against all others. This latter may be called a political Commonwealth, or Commonwealth by Institution; and the former, a Commonwealth by acquisition8.

Notes

1.Commonwealth: used in the official names of some countries, groups of countries, or parts of countries; for example, British Commonwealth (of Nations) consists of the united Kingdom and most of the countries that were previously under its rule.

2.Aristotle: (384 B.C.-322 B.C.) one of the greatest of the ancient Greek philosophers, pupil of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great

3.distraction: mental turmoil that turns people’s attention away from something they want to concentrate on; here it refers to some social disorder or chaos.

4.covenant: a formal written agreement between two or more people or groups of people which is recognized in law

5.concord: a state of peaceful agreement

6.Leviathan: the monstrous sea creature symbolizing evil in the Old Testament, usually refers to something frightening that is extremely large and difficult to control

7.expedient: an action that achieves a particular purpose, but may not be morally right

8.acquisition: the act of contracting or assuming or acquiring possession of something; the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge

Questions for Further Thinking

1.Of the six differences between political creatures and men, which one do you think is the most decisive reason for the existence of a Commonwealth in human society?

2.Suppose you were a member of the assembly of men, what power would you have? What responsibility would you shoulder? What risks would you take?

3.As you may have learned, Leviathan is a sea monster in the Old Testament. It was described by St. Thomas Aquinas as the demon of envy. Why does Hobbes refer to Leviathan in this passage?

4.If each Commonwealth takes care of their peace and common defense, why are there wars between them, or even wars within the Commonwealth itself?

5.Would individuals always be willing to give up their rights of governing themselves to the Commonwealth? If not, what would happen to the individual and to the Commonwealth?

6.What does sovereign power mean to each individual’s human rights?

After-reading Assignment

Oral Work

1.Although the Commonwealth is based on unity, such unity is always accompanied by conflict and often ends in violence and separation. Work with your partner to find some historical events reflecting Hobbes’ theory of commonwealth. Report the results of your work to your classmates in a short presentation.

2.In the world, we have states, unions, federations, confederations, or even organizations. Would you find some examples for each of these and get to know their differences and similarities? Prepare a short presentation to illustrate these different political systems.

3.In 2014, the referendum result of 55 to 45 percent resolved that Scotland remained inside Britain. Meanwhile, Greece was also considering a referendum to decide whether the country should remain in the Eurozone. Read some reports about these such incidents and find out how political scientists responded to them. Quote some comments and read them to your classmates.

4.The concept of Leviathan fits not only the study of nations, but that of other organizations such as business, for both are about the principal-agent governance. Work in a group and explore the differences and similarities between politics and business. Exchange your views freely and thoroughly.

Written Work

1.In the age of globalization, there are many cross-border organizations and multinational corporations. They are beyond the boundaries of the Commonwealth. Yet, does globalization change the nature of a country? What do contemporary political scientists think about globalization and politics? Read and write a 500-word book report.

2.Hobbes’ theory has greatly influenced philosophy, politics, foreign affairs, legal systems, etc. in the western world. Research into Hobbes’ influences in the political system and write a review about it.

3.Hobbes holds that competition, diffidence and glory are the three principal causes of quarrel. To what degree do you agree or disagree? Write a 400-word argumentative essay exploring the main causes of conflict either between men or between states.