Joshua Reynolds
Pre-reading
Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) was a portrait painter and aesthetician who dominated English artistic life in the middle and late 18th century. He promoted the “Grand Style” in painting which depended on idealization of the imperfect. He completed over 3000 works of art, including a few preliminary sketches. With the founding of the Royal Academy of Art in 1768, Reynolds was elected its first president, a position he held until the end of his life. He was knighted by King George Ⅲ in 1769.
Sir Joshua Reynolds was also an eloquent writer and a close friend of Samuel Johnson. His Discourses, a series of lectures delivered at the Academy between 1769 and 1790, are remembered for their sensitivity and perception.
This essay (originally untitled) first appeared in Johnson’s The Idler (1759).
Prompts for Your Reading
1.What do you imagine is the author’s idea of beauty?
2.How can we determine what is beautiful?
3.How do we develop the ability to distinguish beauty from deformity?
4.What do a Naturalist and a Painter have in common?
5.What role does habit and custom play according to the author?
6.What is the point of the example of a swan and a dove?
7.How does the author convey his idea of beauty to the reader effectively?
8.How does the author define Beauty in the passage?
9.What is Paragraph 13 about?
10.Is there a criterion for beauty? Is beauty subjective or objective?
[1] Discoursing in my last letter on the different practice of the Italian and Dutch Painters, I observed that “the Italian Painter attends only to the invariable, the great, and general ideas, which are fixed and inherent in universal nature.”
[2] I was led into the subject of this letter by endeavoring to fix the original cause of this conduct of the Italian Masters. If it can be proved that by this choice they selected the most beautiful part of the creation, it will show how much their principles are founded on reason, and, at the same time, discover the origin of our ideas of beauty.
[3] I suppose it will be easily granted that no man can judge whether any animal be beautiful in its kind, or deformed, who has seen only one of that species; this is as conclusive in regard to the human figure; so that if a man, born blind, were to recover his sight, and the most beautiful woman were brought before him, he could not determine whether she was handsome or not; nor if the most beautiful and most deformed were produced, could he any better determine to which he should give the preference, having seen only those two. To distinguish beauty, then, implies having seen many individuals of that species. If it is asked, how is more skill acquired by the observation of greater numbers?
[4] I answer, that, in consequence of having seen many, the power is acquired, even without seeking after it, of distinguishing between accidental blemishes1 and excrescences2 which are continually varying the surface of Nature’s works, and the invariable general form which Nature most frequently produces, and always seems to intend in her productions.
[5] Thus amongst the blades of grass or leaves of the same tree, though no two can be found exactly alike, the general form is invariable: a Naturalist, before he chose one as a sample, would examine many; since if he took the first that occurred, it might have by accident or otherwise such a form as that it would scarce be known to belong to that species; he selects as the Painter does, the most beautiful, that is, the most general form of nature.
[6] Every species of the animal as well as the vegetable creation may be said to have a fixed or determinate form, towards which Nature is continually inclining, like various lines terminating in the centre; or it may be compared to pendulums vibrating in different directions over one central point: and as they all cross the centre, though only one passes through any other point, so it will be found that perfect beauty is oftener produced by Nature than deformity: I do not mean than deformity in general, but than any one kind of deformity. To instance in a particular part of a feature: the line that forms a ridge of the nose is beautiful when it is straight; this, then, is the central form, which is oftener found than either concave, convex, or any other irregular form that shall be proposed. As we are then more accustomed to beauty than deformity, we may conclude that to be the reason why we approve and admire it, as we approve and admire customs and fashions of dress for no other reason than that we are used to them; so that though habit and custom cannot be said to be the cause of beauty, it is certainly the cause of our liking it; and I have no doubt but that if we were more used to deformity than beauty, deformity would then lose the idea now annexed3 to it, and take that of beauty: as if the whole world should agree, that yes and no should change their meaning; yes would then deny, and no would affirm.
[7] Whoever undertakes to proceed further in this argument, and endeavors to fix a general criterion of beauty respecting different species, or to show why one species is more beautiful than another, it will be required from him first to prove that one species is really more beautiful than another. That we prefer one to the other, and with very good reason, will be readily granted; but it does not follow from thence4 that we think it a more beautiful form; for we have no criterion of form by which to determine our judgment. He who says a swan is more beautiful than a dove, means little more than that he has more pleasure in seeing a swan than a dove, either from the stateliness of its motions, or its being a more rare bird; and he who gives the preference to the dove, does it from some association of ideas of innocence which he always annexes to the dove; but if he pretends to defend the preference he gives to one or the other by endeavoring to prove that this more beautiful form proceeds from a particular gradation of magnitude, undulation5 of a curve, or direction of a line, or whatever other conceit of his imagination he shall fix on, as a criterion of form, he will be continually contradicting himself, and find at last that the great Mother of Nature will not be subjected to such narrow rules. Among the various reasons why we prefer one part of her works to another, the most general, I believe, is habit and custom; custom makes, in a certain sense, white black, and black white; it is custom alone that determines our preference of the color of the Europeans to the Ethiopians, and they, for the same reason, prefer their own color to ours. I suppose nobody will doubt, if one of their Painters were to paint the Goddess of Beauty, but that he would represent her black, with thick lips, flat nose, and woolly hair; and, it seems to me, he would act very unnaturally if he did not, for by what criterion will anyone dispute the propriety6 of his idea? We indeed say that the form and color of the European is preferable to that of the Ethiopian; but I know of no other reason we have for it, but that we are more accustomed to it. It is absurd to say that beauty is possessed of attractive powers, which irresistibly seize the corresponding mind with love and admiration, since that argument is equally conclusive in favor of the white and the black philosophers.
[8] The black and white nations must, in respect of beauty, be considered as of different kinds, at least a different species of the same kind; from one of which to the other, as I observed, no inference can be drawn.
[9] Novelty is said to be one of the causes of beauty. That novelty is a very sufficient reason why we should admire is not denied; but because it is uncommon, is it therefore beautiful? The beauty that is produced by color, as when we prefer one bird to another, though of the same form, on account of its color, has nothing to do with the argument, which reaches only to form.
[10] I have here considered the word Beauty as being properly applied to form alone. There is a necessity of fixing this confined sense; for there can be no argument, if the sense of the word is extended to everything that is approved. A rose may as well be said to be beautiful because it has a fine smell, as a bird because of its color.
[11] When we apply the word Beauty, we do not mean always by it a more beautiful form, but something valuable on account of its rarity, usefulness, color, or any other property. A horse is said to be a beautiful animal; but had a horse as few good qualities as a tortoise, I do not imagine that he would then be deemed beautiful.
[12] A fitness to the end proposed is said to be another cause of beauty; but supposing we were proper judges of what form is the most proper in an animal to constitute strength or swiftness, we always determine concerning its beauty, before we exert our understanding to judge of its fitness.
[13] From what has been said, it may be inferred, that the works of Nature, if we compare one species with another, are all equally beautiful, and that preference is given from custom or some association of ideas; and that, in creatures of the same species, beauty is the medium or centre of all its various forms.
[14] To conclude, then, by way of corollary7: if it has been proved that the Painter, by attending to the invariable and general ideas of Nature, produce beauty; he must, by regarding minute particularities, and accidental discriminations, deviate from the universal rule, and pollute his canvas with deformity.
Notes
1.blemish: a mark or flaw that spoils the appearance of something (especially on a person’s body)
2.excrescence: a projection, especially an outgrowth from an organ or part of the body(长在动植物体器官或部位上的)赘生物
3.annex: attach to
4.thence: (used to introduce a logical conclusion) from that fact or reason or as a result
5.undulation: wavelike motion; a gentle rising and falling in the manner of waves波动；起伏
6.propriety: the quality of being socially or morally acceptable
7.corollary: (logic) an inference that follows directly from the proof of another proposition推论；必然的结果
Questions for Further Thinking
1.Reynolds thinks “To distinguish beauty, then, implies having seen many individuals of that species”. To what extent do you agree with the author? Do you think that the more you see, the better you become at determining what is beautiful?
2.Do you believe that “perfect beauty is oftener produced by Nature than deformity”(Paragraph 6)? In what ways has mankind deformed nature to make it more beautiful?
3.The author believes that the power to distinguish beauty is acquired without seeking after it. Does it mean that the ability develops naturally without making conscious efforts?
4.If habit and custom are the most general reason why we prefer one to another, how does novelty, a quality beyond habit and custom, cause beauty?
5.According to the author, habit and custom are the most general reason why we prefer one to another. Can we say in other words that our judgment of beauty is culturedependent?
6.The author proposes that beauty doesn’t only consist in form, but more in its rarity, usefulness, color, or any other property. Can you think of anything beautiful but not useful, or beautiful but not valuable?
7.Beauty is a very frequently used word in our daily life. What do you think are the different interpretations of the word in everyday usage and in the field of aesthetics?
8.Think about your preference of a dog or of a cat. What are your criteria for your preference?
After-reading Assignment
Oral Work
1.In the passage, Reynolds presents his views on beauty. Work with your classmates and sort out 5 statements about beauty. Then drawing on your own experiences and observations, use examples to show that you agree or disagree with any one of those claims.
2.Illustration is an effective way to clarify and justify a point in writing. Sort out all the examples used in the passage. Then decide which point that a given example tries to illustrate. After a discussion with your partner about the effectiveness of those examples, choose one representative to present your comments.
3.The nature of beauty is a controversial issue in Western philosophy. One of the controversies is the debate over whether beauty is objective or subjective. Make an analysis of Western philosophers concerning this aspect of beauty and give a 5-minute presentation in class, summarizing their points.
4.Among Chinese philosophers and thinkers, can you name at least two who have discussed the topic of beauty? What are their views on beauty? Summarize their points and present them to your class.
5.Nowadays, cosmetic surgery has become more and more common, especially among young people. Some people think a facelift can help enhance their appearance, boost their confidence, and give them more competitive edge in the job market. Do you think it is a wise choice to artificially change a person’s looks? Decide on your position, either for or against cosmetic surgery, and then have a debate on this issue. Your supporting points should be logical, persuasive and convincing.
Written Work
1.Reynolds thinks “It is absurd to say that beauty is possessed of attractive powers.” Do you agree or disagree with the author? Do you think beauty means inherent attractions that are irresistible? Do research work and find evidence to exemplify and support either point of view. Make a written outline of your evidence.
2.Speaking of novelty, people in general are attracted to something novel and creative. What accounts for that? Write an essay of about 400 words, detailing the reasons that you believe convincing enough.
3.Refer to No. 5 in Oral Work. What is your view on cosmetic surgery? Compose a 400-word argumentative essay.