Beijing Normal University Pan Xin min

Abstract:From the perspective of the formation of knowledge,A theory named “Knowledge Construction” is prevalent among the current views of knowledge,leaving its influence upon school teaching which has a close relation with knowledge acquired .To put it another way,the construction theory emphasizes that knowledge cannot be taught and that only through constructive learning can students acquire knowledge.This theory obviously goes against the long-standing teaching pattern.This learning view came into existence owing to its overestimation of teaching significance and underestimation of its limitation on theoretical limitation.It is beneficial to give the mechanism of knowledge formation and acquisition a second recognition under the guidance of dialectical materialism.Reflected in the school teaching,it will help to clarify the misunderstanding of knowledge teaching.Recognizing between knowledge and student construction learning concept is not conflict.

Key words:knowledge teaching;knowledge constructivist theory;recognition theory of dialectical materialism

In recent years,our country has witnessed a great emphasis on students' positive,active,creative learning in the reform of school curriculum and teaching.This is a good phenomenon worth being praised.However,when analyzing the main reason of students' passive learning,a lot of people argues that knowledge teaching is the cause.Being proposed in due time,Knowledge Constructivism caters for the need of this criticism.At some time,the notions that knowledge is constructed and cannot be taught,that knowledge can only be acquired through actively constructive learning were very popular in the teaching theory and practice.It seems that students cannot acquire knowledge without referring to Constructivism.In the light of these notions,we would like to put forward a question for discussion,namely,how to understand that knowledge is constructed? Is constructive learning in a conflict with knowledge teaching? The following is some reflection and discussion about these questions.

Ⅰ Reflection on the teaching phenomenon caused by a popular knowledge view

The issue of knowledge view is quite complex.It includes the discussion about the nature,mechanism,and types of knowledge.Being a problem of great importance,knowledge view is always the important content and premise of curriculum reform and teaching reform.In the current teaching theory and practice,this view on knowledge is very popular from the perspective of knowledge formation,namely,knowledge is constructed actively by the cognition individual.It is only a kind of experience,interpretation and assumption of the cognition individual (“knowledge constructivism ” in brief) rather than something objective.In school teaching,a learning view closely related to this concept is that learning is not a process of teaching by teachers but learning by students themselves.On the surface,this knowledge constructivism and the corresponding learning theory are progressive and have inner logic relations indeed.But if a further reflection on knowledge constructivism and the corresponding learning theory is given,its rationality is worth evaluated.

Knowledge Constructivism holds that knowledge is mainly constructed subjectively,and that it is made only to explain and assume things.Thus,the subjectivity of knowledge is of great part,so it seems nature that students' obtaining knowledge can only be achieved through the activities by themselves.According to the theory of Knowledge Constructivism,“the objectivity of knowledge”is of little importance.Since Knowledge has no objectivity,for students' knowledge imparting cannot be discussed.But in fact,to some extent,the objection to knowledge objectivity is equal to the objection to the fact that students obtain the objective knowledge of science and culture which was accumulated through a long period by knowledge imparting.Having evolved from knowledge constructivism,this knowledge view is obviously against the learning theory which was exploded through the long-term teaching practice.We know that primary school students and middle school students are not in his power to correctly understand the world because of their immature.Although the student's own construction,experience,feelings,and understanding is important,the main task of students is to promote the all-round development of morality,intelligence,and body on the basis of obtaining the objective knowledge of science and culture accumulated by humans being.If there is no systemic knowledge,the so-called “Knowledge Constructivism” can only be one-sided and fragmentary which cannot satisfy the requirement of students' growth.We can see that the main source of the emergence of violations against teaching practice made by “Knowledge Constructivism” theory is made by over-emphasizing the meaning of “Knowledge Constructivism” and ignoring its inherent limitations,i.e.the objectivity of knowledge.So it has triggered an absolute admit self-constructional study of students in teaching practice and the contradiction against knowledge teaching.Therefore,to correct the confusion of practice,we should first start from make the theory clear.Only when we have a clear theory can we do it effectively.

Ⅱ Reflection on “Knowledge Constructivism”:having ignored the objectivity of knowledge

“Theory of knowledge construction” emphasizes that it is the cognitive subject who construct knowledge initiatively,due to the existence of “individual-society” dimension,“theory of knowledge” divides into the individual constructivism and the social constructivism.The individual constructivism of knowledge,in brief,emphasizes that knowledge is the result of individual's motile construction in the process of interaction between the subject and the object.While the social constructivism of knowledge emphasizes that knowledge is social constructed,it is the agreement reached by different individuals through consensus,consultation and dialogue.

Among the correlative reaches on views of knowledge,the individual constructivism mainly discuss the occurrence of knowledge from the angle of psychology,especially the creation process of individual knowledge,typically is Piaget's epistemology.Piaget contends that knowledge is neither objective (empiricism) nor subjective (apriorism),it is the result of gradual construction in the process of interaction between the individual and environment.Theory of construction is the core of Piaget's epistemology,especially Piaget forwardly developed assimilation and accommodation into the bidirectional construction theory including “internalization” and “externalization”,explaining the occurrence mechanism of individual knowledge construction concretely.

It ought to say that the individual constructivism of knowledge highlights the individual's subjective status and cognitive subject's creativity and activity,attends the subjectivity of knowledge,while in the respect of objectivity,though Piaget emphasize that “object exists definitely and has its construction,the object construction also exists outside of us independently”.“Only through the activity of the subject can object be recognized,therefore the object itself is constructed by the subject.Due to this,the object has the ultimate attribute of always be close but never reach.”Piaget's construction theory regards that,in the process of interaction between the subject and object,the object acts on the subject and causes continuous construction inside the subject;highlights the subjectivity of individual construction;emphasizes the process of continuous construction of individual's subjective knowledge,while it neither make a key discussion on the problem of knowledge objectivity,nor give a explain whether the knowledge that individuals construct is in accordance with the objectivity.Especially the later radical individual constructivist Grases Field only takes knowledge as a individual way to explain,finally negates the objective existence of knowledge,therefore goes to the extreme.Obviously,it is easily get into the risk of solipsism if only refer to the individual construction of subjective knowledge,while ignore the objectivity of knowledge;epistemology itself can't avoid the problem.It is visible that the individual constructivism pays attention to the problem of subjective construction but ignores the discussion on the problem of objectivity.

The Social Constructivism of knowledge is a research on knowledge from the Angle of social production process.Its purpose is to emphasize that some certain areas of knowledge is related to the social group interaction and consultation,dialogue and consensus.At present,it should be said that Social Constructivism of knowledge is the core of scientific knowledge sociology which ia deeply influenced by postmodernism.Although Scientific knowledge sociology has various genres and various positions,but their common core proposition is the emphasis on “social construction of knowledge”.Its theoretical basis is typically Kuhn paradigm theory.Kuhn thinks that scientific knowledge is only the result of the mutual interaction,consultation and agreement of scientific community.The so-called truth is merely the agreement of most people.And the progress of science is the continuous conversion of paradigm.Because of the incommensurability between paradigms,the explanation of certain things and phenomenon will replace the prepositions for the thing made by former paradigm.So scientific knowledge had on such thing as being a truth,nor does it being cumulative.

As for the social constructions of scientific knowledge,we should admit that individual breakthrough of his knowledge construction has been made due to the attention on the process of knowledge construction.In the scientific community,knowledge which is attained through the discussion of different subject strengthens the explanation of a phenomenon or a thing.Along with the changes of historical conditions and through the transformation of model,a phenomenon,a new science theory would emerge to explain things.But social constructivism of knowledge emphasizes that knowledge is just the results of mutual construction and negotiation between the “subjects”.And in essence it is trying to supplant “the objectivity principle” with “intersubjectivity”.Here,“the social constructions of knowledge”obviously overlooked the fact that scientific community coming into agreement is based on the actual things of nature.Facing the actual things of nature,science community cannot speak at their random.Just as Popper who pointed out vividly that “human being made laws for nature,but nature is the final arbitrator and often gives a loudly answer:NO!”.The scientific community constantly construct a new theory which is better to be said as a process of scientific knowledge being nearer to “objectivity”,a process of being more actual,a process of being nearer to objective rules rather than a process of the transformation of the scientific paradigm.For the constant evolving process of different scientific knowledge systems,it is not always like what Kuhn had said that paradigms have no cumulative incommensurability.In fact,the development of scientific knowledge system is continuous and cumulative.Just as Newton said,he can succeed because he stood on the shoulders of giants.It can be seen that the Social Constructivism of knowledge is a step ahead the Individual Constructivism,because it pays attention to the social consultation of knowledge construction and the important role of individuals have played.But Social Constructivism of knowledge also has defects in knowledge objectivity.

Ⅲ The mechanism of knowledge formation and acquisition:“knowledge Constructivism” and “dialectical materialism epistemology” of combination

Through the above analysis,knowledge Constructivism only pays attention to the subjective construction of knowledge and ignores its objectivity.After all,the objective construction of knowledge can only done in the subjective practice.It is obvious that to separate objective world from knowledge constructing and ignore the relationship between them is unfavorable to know the objective world.Actually,as for the concept of knowledge,scientific explanations have been given by dialectical materialism epistemology from the perspective of philosophy.To put it simply,knowledge is formed and accumulated through the long-term practice of nature and society.However,cognition is the creative reflection of knowledge on the basis of the characteristics and relations of objective things.As it reflects objective things,so knowledge has objectivity and at the same time is the subjective image built up by human brain.Therefore,knowledge is the objective and subjective unification.

Therefore,it can be seen that epistemology of dialectical materialism has a high degree of inclusiveness and generalization and the scientific ingredients of knowledge constructivism have been included,in principle,in the dynamic theory of reflection system.If added,and improved,rather than replaced,the knowledge constructivism with the specific content further substantiates the dynamic theory of reflection.For example,the individual knowledge constructivism,from the perspective of the individual,demonstrates and supports the materialist theory of knowledge,showing the specific psychological mechanisms of occurrence of individual awareness.However,the individual knowledge constructivism reminds us that human recognition occurs and develops in the interaction of individual and society,individual and individual.Any individual's recognition activities can not be carried out alone if they are divorced from the recognition activities of society and human.By combining the knowledge constructivism and the knowledge materialism,it is easy to find the specific mechanism of the formation and access to knowledge,namely,the formation and acquisition of knowledge is based on the understanding of materialism and a result of two-way interaction process of the individual construction and social construction.At the same time,it is a dynamic and repeating process.This process highlights that the process of the formation and access to knowledge is constructive,negotiable,and transcendent.

As shown in figure:

The fact that the formation of knowledge based on the epistemology of dialectical materialism of knowledge demonstrates that knowledge is both a subjective and objective unity.Tracing back to the source of the formation of knowledge,it is supposed that human first construct the (natural,social,personal) knowledge about the objective things.However,it needs social practice and many other tests to see whether the knowledge is in line with objective reality or not.This process is a process of the social construction and consultation.That is,a process many people involved,through consultation,practice,questions,debate,agreement,and amendment then gradually reached a consensus accepted by all.As a result of the knowledge system with linguistic signs as its carrier,makes the consensus reached by human dynamic reflection of the outside world at a certain historical stage and continuously coagulate into the objective knowledge with characteristics of historic and situational (that is World 3 named by Karl Popper),and will not perish with the loss of individuals.Through learning,the objective knowledge will be internalized and re-constructed by the individuals,aiming to acquire meaning,and become the individual subjective knowledge.Then,according to the subjective knowledge and the wisdom coagulated in the process of recognizing the world,the individuals with basis of reflecting the dynamic objective things,constantly construct and create new knowledge,thereby demonstrating the transcendental knowledge,complete the recycling of the formation and acquisition of knowledge.With the continuous development of human activities,the objective things themselves change constantly and the formation and acquisition mechanism of knowledge is undergoing a dynamic evolution and recycling process.In this way,the results of human recognition-knowledge,in the manner of accumulation of social genetic evolution,is inherited and developed from generation to generation.For every generation of us,individuals are the generation of the result of awareness-raising activities,that is,the existence of objective knowledge,as our starting point of our recognition and practice activities which is mainly obtained through education and learning.

However,Popper's “three world” theory made a specific explanation for the significance and value of objective knowledge to the individual shaping.Popper thinks that the world we face shall be divided into three parts,namely,first,the physical world (world 1);second,the consciousness world (world 2,subjective knowledge from the angle of knowledge view);third,the objective content world of ideology (world 3,knowledge view says it is the objective knowledge).In Popper's opinion,only admit the world 3' independent existence and recognize it and “1” and “the world of 2”,we can know about the significance of human knowledge.In their relationship can we understand the significance of knowledge to our human being.On the relationship between the “three world”,popper emphasized that knowledge world and spiritual world interact.For example,the ancients had created many fables and these stories were handed down by generations.Education cultivates the thoughts and spirit of generations.Scientists have set up scientific laws,and these laws regulate people's spiritual world and their behavior.But for the knowledge world,it interacts with the physical world through the spirit world although not directly.The best example on this aspect is the is the interaction between brain (world 1) and language (world 3).They interact through “world 2” (people's consciousness),not only having promoted the evolution of brain but also having promoted the development of language.The significance and value of learning objective knowledge (world 3) to realize the objective world (world 1)and promote the subjective world (world 2) can be seen.

Ⅳ The Significance of Knowledge Teaching and the Position of Students' Constructional Learning Manner

From the perspective of this kind of knowledge formation and obtain mechanisms,each generation's turning from immature to mature has a preposition that immature individuals (students) must first be educated and master objective knowledge accumulated by predecessors,then help themselves to develop and know the world.While helping students to learn and master objective knowledge,and promote the all-round development of students are the sacred duty of school education.Although the school education is not the only way for a student to build his inner world and master objective knowledge,but the objective knowledge taught by school is organized and takes social needs and the development regularity of students' body and mind into consideration.Conforming to purpose and regularity,processed,it helps students understand and consolidate their objective knowledge and then helps hem know the world and develop themselves.At the same time,the process of helping student to master objective knowledge through school education is also the continuation of human civilization and culture.It is visible that the aim of school education to promote the development of students' mind through knowledge mainly.Therefore,teaching,in its real sense,is by no means the pure knowledge impartment,but to promote all-round development of students on the basis of knowledge mastering.So we must make a clear understanding of the relations between knowledge,capability,values and so on.Knowledge teaching and students' development are not in conflict,they can promote each other.Thus,the advocation of students' all-round development and the emphasis upon knowledge teaching are not contradictory.All in all,in the reform of curriculum and teaching practice,we emphasize on not only the reform of simple,one-sided,and pure knowledge teaching but also need to prevent from walking to the extreme of ignoring the importance of knowledge teaching which is always the important task of curriculum and teaching.

From this point of view,the current popular constructivism learning theory,which emphasizes “learning is not the process that teachers teach students knowledge,but the process of constructing his knowledge by students themselves”,is worth thinking.This view of learning is a positive significance on the students' enthusiasm and initiative.But this learning has potentially dangerous,that is knowledge is not easy,without the objectivity of the acquisition of knowledge,the knowledge constructd just students' own knowledge.This kind of knowledge and the one teachers teach has no difference,but in no denial,no systematic.If we take the learning in the important functions of school education,namely knowledge framework,here basically the important is not what teachers can transfer to students,but how to transfer,which can let students learn bjective knowledge materials based on their own subjective initiative construct knowledge.AtlStbel,emphasizing meaningful learning,gave the answer to this question.The first condition of learning of AtlStbel's meaningful learning is:new knowledge shall have the potential significance.That the key content of new materials should establish substantive non-artificial contact and be cognitive to the students' structure of knowledge.In addition,the second condition is:students should be active in meaning learning.That is to say,in the learning process,students can actively assimilate new materials from the original knowledge structure by extracting appropriate schema.From this Angle to analyze,we also can more clearly see learning activities (more precisely,is the essence of meaningful learning):this is the expansion,differentiation and reorganization of cognitive structure which learners already have,the latter is directly linked to assimilation to new knowledge of the materials.Furthermore,the change of cognitive structure provides a new learning activities for the new foundation.Obviously,teaching,if take meaningful learning strategy,can guarantee in the process of knowledge students,basing on learning materials(objective),actively construct their subjective knowledge.But this kind of learning strategies has no specific teaching way.As the external knowledge in the teaching in the form of the two sides,whether to accept or to discover,if the study satisfy the conditions of meaningful learning,it is active in process of construction;conversely,it isn't.Of course in the process,due to the difference of the students' cognitive structure,thinking,value orientation,emotion,will and interests and influence factors in the learning process,different students may get different results on the same study materials (objective) when construction developed.

Similarly,based on the influence of the popular learning view,nowadays cooperative learning puts too much on constructing the students' self knowledge by negotiation and dialogue,which deviated from that cooperative learning is often to master knowledge for reservation.That is,cooperation study should be distinguished.The cooperative learning in general includes not only the cooperation between students,but also the cooperation between teachers and students,if we would like to learn about “cooperation” better,then cooperation between teachers and students should include teachers teach and students listen;teachers guide and students find and so on.If we just narrowly learn about cooperative learning,it puts emphasis on the talks between students,then building the way of learning knowledge,which is more popular.We should say that it is meaningful to communication and share the ideas by cooperative study.But at present cooperative learning emphasizes on communication between students and building their own knowledge and not has its exact result.Although cooperative learning has a lot of forms,it still needs the teachers' help to let students to improve their views.But cooperative learning will be nothing if it is away from the theme.

In addition,through this building learning,we always emphasize students learn but ignore teachers teach.For such situation,scholars have pointed out that in today's teaching practice and reform,people emphasize learning and ignore teaching or emphasize teaching and ignore learning,they can not deal with learning and teaching well.Actually,the teaching itself is an activity between teaching and learning,teachers' teaching can not get away from students' learning,because of students' immature,students' learning also can not get away from teachers' teaching,teaching is that under the teachers' leadership the students learn all kinds of knowledge and learn the world and improve themselves by study.Due to the colorful of many kinds of knowledge and thoughts,teachers need to cooperative learning and other ways to help the students to master knowledge.At the same time,teaching can not be always the same,because teaching is a hard work,and is usually due to the time,meaningful teaching is quite important.So,through the meaningful direction,according to the contents,environment and students' characteristics,teachers help students to open the knowledge box by such teaching ways,put the way of thinking to the students' learning,to improve students' knowledge,abilities and values.