When you cite the work of other authors, you may choose to focus either on the information provided by that author, or on the author him-or herself. The first focus we call information prominent because the information is given primary importance. The author’s name(s) and date of publication are parenthetically attached at the end of the sentence . More complete source information is found in an alphabetical list of references at the end of the paper.

An alternate type of information prominent citation uses numbers between the parentheses (instead of author’s name and date). The number refers to the alphabetical and numbered list of references at the end of the paper.

Information prominent citations are commonly used to signal the beginning of Stage II, where the citations refer to research in the general area of your study. (They may appear in Stage I as well.)

As the literature review continues, the citations refer to studies more closely related to your own. In this kind of citation, the author’s name is given more emphasis. It serves as the subject of the sentence, followed by the date or citation number in parentheses, and then by the information. This kind of citation is called author prominent.

Activity 5-1: Analysis

Look back at the following article about desert ecosystems. For each sentence (5 through 8) in Stage II, indicate whether the writers used information prominent or author prominent citations.

Sentence 5 ______________________

Sentence 6 ______________________

Sentence 7 ______________________

Sentence 8 ______________________

Spatial Distribution of Litter and Microarthropods in a Chihuahuan Desert Ecosystem

Stage I

l. In most deserts of the world, transitions between topographic elements are abrupt and watercourses which are dry most of the time tend to dissipate their occasional waters within local basins. 2.Occasional torrential rainfall, characteristic of most desert regions, washes loose debris into watercourses or transports this material, depositing it in and along the shores of ephemeral lakes. 3.These physical processes result in a redistribution of dead plant material (Iitter), affect the distribution of soil water and create a heterogeneous biotic community. 4.Therefore, before the dynamics of desert ecosystems can be adequately understood, the spatial relationships must be clarified.

Stage II

5.There have been few studies of litter distribution and/or soil fauna in any of the world deserts (Wallwork, 1976). 6. Wood (1971) surveyed the soil fauna in a number of Australian arid and semiarid ecosystems. 7. Wallwork (1972) made some studies of the microarthropod fauna in the California Mojave desert and Edney et al. (1974/1975/1976) studied abundance and distribution of soil microarthropods in the Mojave desert in Nevada. 8. In the Chihuahuan desert, Whitford et al. (1975/ 1976/ 1977) described the spatial relationships for many groups of organisms, but soil microarthropods remain unstudied .

Stage III and IV

9. The lack of such information represents a gap in our knowledge of desert ecosystems.10. As part of our continuing program of studies of the structure and dynamics of Chihuahuan desert ecosystems, we designed the study reported here to understand the relationship between litter redistribution and the spatial distribution and composition of the soil microarthropod community.

Order of Citations

It is possible to arrange your Stage II citations in order from those most distantly related to your study to those most closely related, as in the article on desert ecosystems. In addition, there are other ways to order your citations. For example, in a literature review describing the history of research in an area , you may arrange your citations in chronological order. Or, if you have a large number of citations to include in your literature review, as in a thesis or dissertation, you can group them according to the different approaches to the research problem taken by different authors. The citations within each group can then be ordered chronologically or from general to specific.

Activity 5-2: Analysis

Look at each of the following examples of Stage II. Indicate if the method of ordering citations used is distant to close, chronological, different approaches, or a combination of these methods. Read the title carefully to determine the specific focus of the author’s own study.

A. Providing direction and building commitment: teaching as institutional leadership

The conception of teaching as institutional leadership was first proposed by Waller(1932) who paid explicit attention to the organization of schools and the roles of teacher and student as defined by the organization. Recent literature on teacher leadership has not really followed Waller’s approach of considering the roles of teachers and students in school organizations but has more closely resembled what Waller referred to as “personal leadership”.

The literature on classroom leadership has also suffered from problems other than the tendency to deal with personal leadership. There has been a great deal of conceptual confusion about the dimensions of teacher behavior to be examined. Different investigations have used a variety of variables such as authoritarian-democratic (Lewin, Lippett & White, 1939), dominant-integrative (Anderson, 1943 ), initiating structure-consideration (Hemphill, 1957), directiveness-warmth (Dunki & Biddle, 1974 ) task oriented-supportive (Cruikshank, 1976), and teachers tructuring-praise(Soo, & Soor, 1976).

Order of citations in example A:_______________________________________

B. The measurement of mobility

The economic literature which discusses mobility and makes some attempt at measurement broadly falls into two categories. In the first, elementary statistical techniques and indices such as the rank correlation coefficient are used to evaluate the changes in relative positions (6, 8, 11, 1 3, 14, 19 , 22 ). In the second category, measures of mobility are a by-product of simple stochastic specifications of changes over time (1, 9, 1 0).

Order of citations in example B: _______________________________________

C. Subsurface irrigation and fertilization of field corn

Little literature has been published on subsurface irrigation and fertilization through line emitters. Earl and Jury (4), Keng et al. (5) and others have examined water movement patterns and root development associated with trickle irrigation but in all cases emitters have been placed at or near the soil surface. Williams and Hanson (1) placed perforated plastic tubing 25 to 30 cm below cotton rows and over a 3-year period were able to achieve a 10% yield increase when compared to flood irrigation. Phene (9) described the use of line emitters for high frequency irrigation of sweet corn . Yield was 10% higher than obtained with sprinkler irrigation with the use of 50% less water. Mitchell et al. (7) irrigated field corn with perforated plastic tubing. Over a 3-year period yields with subsurface irrigation averaged 68% more than the non-irrigated control plots.

Order of citations in example C: _______________________________________

D. On the time consistency of optimal policy in a monetary economy

The time-consistency issue is by no means a new one in economics. Strotz(25) appears to be the first one to have raised it in relation to an individual consumer. More recently, however, Kydland and Prescott(15) have discovered a family of models exhibiting time inconsistency where the source of the problem lies in the technology and in the assumption that people hold rational expectations. Although they briefly touch upon a monetary economy, the central results of their remarkable paper are given in a context where money plays no central role.

In the monetary literature, Auernheimer (2) appears to be the first one to have noticed that time inconsistency could arise if the government attempts to maximize the revenue from money creation... (etc.)

Order of citations in example D: _______________________________________

Activity 5-3: Arrangement

The following citations are taken from Stage II of the introduction to a research report from the field of nutrition . The citations are given here in scrambled order. Number the citations in the order you feel they should appear in the literature review for this report.

Food Habits of Undergraduate Student at New Mexico State University

A. _______ Young and Storvick(1970) surveyed the food habits of 595 college freshmen in Oregon and found that the men generally had better diets than the women.

B. _______ Litman et al. (1975) reported that green and yellow vegetables and liver(all nutritionally desirable foods) were not liked by teenagers in Minnesota public schools. They also found that teachers have almost no influence on their students’food habits.

C. ______ Studies of the food habits of young school children have shown that the diets of grade school children are often deficient in ascorbic acid, calcium and iron(Lantz et al., 1985; Patterson,1966).

D. ______ A review of the literature indicates that food habit studies have been conducted with students from a variety of different age groups.

E. ________ Young (1965) examined the nutrition habits of a group of young school children and found that their mothers lacked information about the importance of milk and foods rich in ascorbic acid.

F. _____ Studies done with adolescent children report similar findings (Ohlson and Hart, 1970; van de Mark and Underwood,1972).

G. ______ A number of studies have been conducted using both male and female college students as subjects.