One of the greatest difficulties that students and beginning researchers face when conducting research is attempting to link research questions to data analyses. Because of its logical and intuitive appeal, an increasing number of researchers are utilizing the qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods or mixed methods to undertake their studies.

Quantitative research: The most exemplary quantitative methodology is the experimental design or questionnaires, whereby in its simplest form, two groups are measured. When one group is treated, the groups are measured again. Results are then compared. In quantitative research, variables are defined by numbers, such as measuring behaviors or counting instances, which are then used to provide information about our world as a basis for comparisons and conclusions. Knowledge of the type of quantitative research question can help researchers select an appropriate statistical analysis. Quantitative research questions usually represent one of the following three types: descriptive, correlational, or comparative.

Qualitative research: Qualitative researchers use observations, interviews, historical and narrative documentation, and similar subjective data as a basis for discovering and confirming relationships among variables. Many questions probe social situations and use field research techniques, which give considerable attention to describing the context of the social environment. Many qualitative researchers believe that there is only one way to analyze qualitative data, through the method of constant comparative or constant comparison analysis. For example, recently, in an informal poll of school of education faculty at a large university one question was, “how can qualitative data be analyzed?” More than 80% of the participants responded with “constant comparison analysis” . We contend that using a one-size-fits-all approach (i.e., constant comparison analysis) to analyzing qualitative data, at least sometimes, will lead to interpretations that are not consistent with the underlying data—thereby affecting legitimation via components such as interpretive validity and theoretical validity.

Leech and Onwuegbuzie described several qualitative data analysis techniques, including the following: method of constant comparison, keywords-in-context, word count, classical content analysis, domain analysis, taxonomic analysis, and componential analysis.

Unfortunately, it is not possible to match each qualitative research question to its most appropriate data analysis tool. This is because the same qualitative research question can be analyzed in multiple ways. Indeed, Leech and Onwuegbuzie recommend that researchers analyze their data using at least two procedures in order to triangulate their findings and interpretations (i.e., data-analysis triangulation).

Activity 3-1: Identifying quantitative and qualitative data analysis

Read the following two paragraphs and decide their data analysis methods.

1. The study intended to examine the relationship between learner factors and English learning outcomes. In March 1998, more than 1700 non-English majors who were from three universities located in Heilongjiang, Shandong and Jiangsu responded to the “Learner Factor Questionnaire” and in June 1999, they took CET-band 4. The results yielded by multiple regression analysis indicate which learner factors have predicting power in relation to the students’ scores on CET.

2. The study attempted to find out whether students with higher L2 proficiency used reading strategies differently if compared to students with lower L2 proficiency. The subject involved were four students who were majoring in Russian and Japanese, who study English as their second foreign language. The researcher selected two reading passages to match to their reading proficiency respectively. Each student was asked to read the passage individually while speaking aloud what was going on in his/her mind. The whole process was recorded and transcribed subsequently. The strategies used by the students were categorized and then presented. A comparison was made between the two groups in terms of the use of strategies.

Activity 3-2: Identifying the data analysis techniques

Skim over the academic article titled Foreign Language Anxiety: Understanding Its Status and Insiders’ Awareness and Attitudes(See Appendix 2). Study its data analysis techniques and list its parts in the box below.

What You should Know

The information sought and population will determine the sampling methods. If inferences are to be made, a representative sample will be sought, most likely through random sampling. If the population varies according to geographical location or by special groupings (ethnic groups), then stratified random sampling may be needed. If these locations or groups vary a great deal in size, then proportional samplings within the strata may be necessary. If the population is quite widespread and cost and other limitations prevent sampling individuals within the populations, then clusters such as schools or classes within schools may be used with the randomization of clusters. If the information about the population is so adequate that a representative sample can be logically chosen, then perhaps a purposive sample might be used. However, sampling methods should be used only when measuring the characteristics of the population is impossible due to cost, time, or other resource constraint. A thorough, detailed explanation of the sampling techniques is necessary to establish the validity of the information and findings.

The statistical methods used will be largely determined by the information sought. If descriptive information is sought, then descriptive statistics, such as counts, percentages, means, and ranges, may be the most adequate statistical tool. However, if inferences from a sample to a population are desired, then inferential statistics and descriptive information will be needed. Whether comparisons or relationships are sought, the measurement level(nominal, ordinal, interval) and the assumptions to be met (normality of population, equal variances, etc.) will determine the type of inferential tool to use.

Language Focus

Read a passage about mobile phone use and complete the research report.

Research Report

Ⅰ. People who carry out the research: __________________________________

Ⅱ. Subject of study: people at: _________________________________________

Ⅲ. Data collection: data collected from __________________________________

Ⅳ. Data analysis techniques: __________________________________________

Ⅴ. Result of study: ____________________________________________________

A. ___________________________________________________________________________

B. ___________________________________________________________________________

C. ___________________________________________________________________________

The aim of this report was to investigate UniLab staff attitudes towards personal mobile phone use in staff and team meetings. A staff survey on attitudes towards the use of mobile phones in the staff / team meetings was conducted. The results indicate that the majority of staff find mobile phone use is a serious problem in staff meetings. The report concludes that personal mobile phones are disruptive and should be turned off in meetings. It is recommended that UniLab develops a company policy banning the use of mobile phones except in exceptional circumstances.

Introduction

There has been a massive increase in the use of personal mobile phones over the past five years and there is every indication that this will continue. According to Black (2002) by 2008 almost 100% of working people in Australia will carry personal mobile phones. Black describes this phenomenon as “serious in the extreme, potentially undermining the foundations of communication in our society” (2002, p.167).

Recently a number of staff have complained about the use of personal mobile phones in meetings and asked what the official company policy is. In effect, there is no official company policy regarding phone use. This report examines the issue of mobile phone use in staff meetings. It does not seek to examine the use of mobile phones in the workplace at other times, although some concerns were raised.

For the purposes of this report a personal mobile phone is a personally funded phone for private calls as opposed to an employer funded phone that directly relates to carrying out a particular job.

Methods

This research was conducted by questionnaire and investigated UniLab staff members’ attitudes to the use of mobile phones in staff / team meetings. A total of 412 questionnaires were distributed with employees’ fortnightly pay slips. The questionnaire used Likert scales to assess social attitudes (Smith 2002) to mobile phone usage and provided open-ended responses for additional comments. Survey collection boxes were located in every branch for a four-week period. No personal information was collected; the survey was voluntary and anonymous.

Results

There was an 85% response rate to the questionnaire. It can be clearly seen from the results that mobile phones are considered to be disruptive and should be turned off in meetings.

The survey also allowed participants to identify any circumstances where mobile phones should be allowed in meetings and also assessed staff attitudes towards receiving personal phone calls in staff meetings in open-ended questions. These results showed that staff thought that in some circumstances, e.g. medical treatment or emergencies, receiving personal phone calls were acceptable, but generally receiving personal phone calls was not necessary.

Discussions

It can be seen that personal mobile phone use is considered to a problem; however it was acknowledged that in some situations it should be permissible. 80% of recipients considered mobile phones to be highly disruptive and there was strong support for phones being turned off in meetings (85%). Only 12% thought that mobile phone usage in staff and team meetings was not a problem, whereas 85% felt it was a serious issue. The results are consistent throughout the survey. Many of the respondents (62%) felt that in exceptional circumstances mobile phones should be allowed, e.g. medical treatment, but there should be protocols regarding this. These findings are consistent with previous studies. According to Smith (2005) many companies have identified mobile phones as disruptive and have banned the use of mobile phones in meetings. Havir (2004) claims that 29% of staff meeting time is wastefully spent through unnecessary mobile phone interruptions. This affects time management, productivity and team focus.

Conclusion

The use of mobile phones in staff meetings is clearly disruptive and they should be switched off. Most staff felt it is not necessary to receive personal phone calls in staff meetings except under certain circumstances, but permission should first be sought from the team leader, manager or chair.

Assignment

1.Visit the website http://www.ihmctan.edu/PDF/notes/Research_Methodology.pdf, where there is file about the detailed description of research methodology. Read and know more about the characteristics of research.

2.Look at your most recent written work, for example, the term paper of a course you took last semester. Reread your questionnaire and redesign it according to what has been learned in the present unit.