Cultural and national negotiation styles reflect the priorities and communication behaviors of that culture. Priorities such as teamwork, trust, openness, and non-confrontational situations are all along a sliding scale with each culture. The communication behaviors of each culture reflect these priorities and can dictate how a culture will engage in negotiations.

■Chinese Style of Negotiation

Chinese negotiators expect to build up a long-term cooperative relationship with their partners. Different from American negotiators, they are not in a hurry to reach an agreement. In a general way, they need a slow start to “warm up”, which is followed by some tentative suggestions. Chinese negotiators, like their Japanese counterparts, never expect any open confrontations for whatever reasons, and are always trying to “save face” for both sides.

The Chinese are reserved, and they are known for their good manners and hospitality. The Chinese attach much importance to mutual trust and relationships. Therefore, they may spend much time enjoying tea and social talk in the beginning of a negotiation. However, in the eyes of the foreign negotiators the Chinese are some of the toughest negotiators in the world. The Chinese would research their opponents thoroughly to gain a competitive advantage during negotiation, so both the technical competence and a non-condescending attitude are vital important when negotiating with the Chinese. The Chinese delegation will be large, and they prefer to use an intermediary. Although Chinese negotiators imply that there is no compromise or a third choice, there usually be ample room for compromise in reality. Nothing is final until it is signed.

■U.S. Style of Negotiation

Imagining self and others as independent, autonomous, and self-reliant, the U.S. negotiators incline to rely on individualism. It does not mean that they do not confer with others, but they tend to see self as separate rather than as a member of network or web. And this kind of tendency usually causes independent initiative in negotiation. Normally, American negotiators are competitive in their approach to negotiations and are confident, persistent, and energetic. They see things universally and are fond of arguing their positions. They concentrate on one issue at a time; focus on areas of disagreement instead of those of commonality or agreement. They prefer certainty and closure to fuzziness or open-endedness.

■British Style of Negotiation

Reflecting their cultural characteristics, the British negotiators are very formal and polite. They are concerned with proper etiquette and pay great attention to proper protocol. British negotiators are always reserved and mannered, and their negotiation style is characterized with the soft sell. The status and role of the negotiators are of extremely great importance. Compared to the American culture which is relatively low context culture, British culture is high context one. In other words, the nuances of communication count a lot. Under normal circumstances, most Westerners look forward to a rapid answer when they ask a question or make a statement.

■French Style of Negotiation

When doing business, the French expect other people to behave as they do. For example, they would like their counterparts to speak their language. Though they enjoy conversation for the sake of conversation, they are also very pragmatic about details of the proposed agreement during negotiations. They are very individualistic and have a sense of pride which is sometimes interpreted as supremacy. When negotiating, the French adhere to their own logic which is referred to as “Cartesian”. Their logic is based on principles established previously; it proceeds from what is known, in point-by-point fashion, until agreement is reached. When dealing with the French, manners, protocol, status, family, education, and personal achievements are the keys to success.

■Japanese Style of Negotiation

Japanese culture is a hierarchical orientation and it focuses on group goals and independence. During the process of negotiations, these values will manifest themselves in awareness of group goals and needs, and deference to those of superior status. Japanese negotiators are known for their politeness, their concentration on building up interpersonal relationship, and their indirect use of power. Japanese concern greatly with face, and face-saving might be the vital reason that politeness is so important and confrontation is avoided. The Japanese tend to use their powers in muted, indirect ways with their preference for harmony and calm. Compared with French or American negotiators, Japanese negotiators are found to disclose considerably less about their goals and themselves.

■African Style of Negotiation

Many nations in Africa possess indigenous systems of conflict resolution that have continued to the present, sometimes quite intact and sometimes fragmented by rapid social change. These systems are generally dependent on particular approaches that respect elder roles and kinship ties, and the structures of local society. In Nigeria, for instance, the goal of restoring social networks is paramount, and individual differences are expected to be subsumed in the interest of the group. To ensure that progress or an agreement in a negotiation is preserved, the parties must promise not to invoke ancestors’ power to curse or bewitch the other in the future. The target of any process, formal or informal, is to affect a positive outcome without “residual of bitterness or resentment”. Elders have substantial power and their words will be surely respected when they intervene in a negotiation or a conflict. Most African people believe that certain elders have to supernatural powers and these powers could remove protective shields at best and cause personal disaster at worst. In other African context, a range of indigenous processes exist in which hierarchies and relationships are particularly emphasized.